July 20, 2024
No other act of resistance against Adolf Hitler had such a long-term impact as the assassination attempt by Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. Nevertheless, his plans remain controversial to this day.
Doomed to fail
But Hitler suffered only minor injuries. The heavy oak table and the fact the barracks' windows were opened wide due to the hot weather had dampened the force of the explosion.
Despite this, the chance for a putsch would not yet have been completely lost — if everyone involved had followed through with Operation Valkyrie unswervingly. But there were delays, breakdowns and insufficient planning. In addition, facing the enormous pressure of possibly being discovered, some of those involved remained passive or even changed sides.
By the evening, the coup attempt had failed. Hitler went on the radio to broadcast to the people and spoke of the "providence" which saved him. Stauffenberg and several co-conspirators were arrested and executed by firing squad that night. Others were only discovered later. In total, about 200 resistance fighters were killed.
Historian Wolfgang Benz believes the main reason for the failure was because "none of the famous military leaders" from that time, such as General Erwin Rommel, took part. "At least one of them needed to have been at the helm, so that then the people would say: 'Aha, Rommel also sees it that way, that Hitler is a criminal,'" he said.
No other act of resistance against Adolf Hitler had such a long-term impact as the assassination attempt by Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. Nevertheless, his plans remain controversial to this day.
Stauffenberg (left) had direct contact with Hitler (center)Image: picture-alliance/akg-
Eighty years ago, on July 20, 1944, at 12:42, a bomb went off in the conference room of the Wolf's Lair military headquarters in East Prussia, the easternmost province of the German Reich until the end of World War II. It was supposed to kill Adolf Hitler, and had been planted by German army officer Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. The former ardent National Socialist now no longer saw any other option apart from murdering the dictator. "There is nothing left but to kill him," he had told his closest confidants a few days earlier.
Stauffenberg was not only the assassin, but also the most important organizer of a large-scale coup attempt by people from conservative circles, which included high-ranking military, diplomatic and administrative officials.
Eighty years ago, on July 20, 1944, at 12:42, a bomb went off in the conference room of the Wolf's Lair military headquarters in East Prussia, the easternmost province of the German Reich until the end of World War II. It was supposed to kill Adolf Hitler, and had been planted by German army officer Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg. The former ardent National Socialist now no longer saw any other option apart from murdering the dictator. "There is nothing left but to kill him," he had told his closest confidants a few days earlier.
Stauffenberg was not only the assassin, but also the most important organizer of a large-scale coup attempt by people from conservative circles, which included high-ranking military, diplomatic and administrative officials.
Claus Graf Schenk von Stauffenberg (1907-1944)Image: picture-alliance/akg-images
Shortly before the time bomb exploded on July 20, 1944, the officer had left the barracks. He flew in a military aircraft toward Berlin, believing the "Führer" was dead. In the German capital, "Operation Valkyrie" was underway.
Originally devised as a Wehrmacht plan to suppress a possible uprising, the conspirators — who held key positions throughout the Nazi state apparatus — wanted to repurpose "Valkyrie" for their own coup.
Shortly before the time bomb exploded on July 20, 1944, the officer had left the barracks. He flew in a military aircraft toward Berlin, believing the "Führer" was dead. In the German capital, "Operation Valkyrie" was underway.
Originally devised as a Wehrmacht plan to suppress a possible uprising, the conspirators — who held key positions throughout the Nazi state apparatus — wanted to repurpose "Valkyrie" for their own coup.
Doomed to fail
But Hitler suffered only minor injuries. The heavy oak table and the fact the barracks' windows were opened wide due to the hot weather had dampened the force of the explosion.
Despite this, the chance for a putsch would not yet have been completely lost — if everyone involved had followed through with Operation Valkyrie unswervingly. But there were delays, breakdowns and insufficient planning. In addition, facing the enormous pressure of possibly being discovered, some of those involved remained passive or even changed sides.
By the evening, the coup attempt had failed. Hitler went on the radio to broadcast to the people and spoke of the "providence" which saved him. Stauffenberg and several co-conspirators were arrested and executed by firing squad that night. Others were only discovered later. In total, about 200 resistance fighters were killed.
Historian Wolfgang Benz believes the main reason for the failure was because "none of the famous military leaders" from that time, such as General Erwin Rommel, took part. "At least one of them needed to have been at the helm, so that then the people would say: 'Aha, Rommel also sees it that way, that Hitler is a criminal,'" he said.
Known and unknown heroes: People who resisted Hitler
They were few, but they existed: People who risked their lives to fight the Nazis. The German Resistance Memorial Center in Berlin pays tribute to them
The assassination attempt of July 20, 1944
Seventy-five years ago, a bomb exploded in the Führer's Wolf's Lair headquarters, which was supposed to kill Adolf Hitler. The assassination attempt failed; Hitler survived. The resistance fighters involved were executed in the days following the attempted coup.
Man behind the July 20 plot
Claus Graf Schenk von Stauffenberg was instrumentally involved in the bomb plot of July 20, 1944. As early as 1942, the officer realized that the Second World War could no longer be won. In order to save Germany from imminent destruction, Stauffenberg and other Wehrmacht officers decided to overthrow the Hitler regime.
Kreisau Circle
Fundamental political reform in Germany was the goal of the Kreisau Circle. Helmuth James Graf von Moltke and Peter Graf Yorck von Wartenburg (pictured) were the driving forces behind the movement. Some members of the Circle joined the July 20 plot in 1944 and were tried and sentenced to death after the assassination attempt failed.Image: picture-alliance/akg-images
Hans and Sophie Scholl
Starting from 1942 a group of Munich students, led by siblings Hans and Sophie Scholl, tried to resist the National Socialists. The group, which called itself the White Rose, distributed thousands of leaflets denouncing the crimes of the Nazi regime. In February 1943 the Gestapo found the siblings and sentenced them to death.
Attempted Hitler assassination by Georg Elser
In 1939, carpenter Georg Elser fastened explosive devices behind Hitler's lectern in the Munich Bürgerbräu brewery. The bomb detonated as planned. However, since Hitler's speech was shorter than expected, he had already left the hall before the explosion. Seven people died and 60 more were injured. Elser was arrested on the same day and taken to Dachau concentration camp, where he died in 1945.
During the Second World War, Berlin manufacturer Otto Weidt employed mainly blind and deaf Jews. His broom and brush bindery was considered an "important defense business" and could therefore not be closed down by the Nazis. Weidt managed to provide for his Jewish employees throughout the war and protect them from deportation.
Resistance by artists and intellectuals
Numerous artists and intellectuals already turned against the regime when Hitler came to power in 1933. Many who did not want to adapt or openly oppose the system fled into exile. Others, such as the Berlin cabaret group Katakombe, openly criticized the regime. In 1935 the theater was closed by the Gestapo and its founder Werner Finck was imprisoned in the Esterwegen concentration camp.
The Swing Jugend or Swing Youth, regarded the American-English way of life, represented by swing music and dance, as a clear opposition to the Nazi regime and the Hitler Youth. In August 1941 there was a wave of arrests, especially in Hamburg, of Swing Youths, many of whom were taken into custody or deported to special youth concentration camps.
Red Orchestra resistance group
The Gestapo used direction finders to track down illegal transmitters used by resistance groups. In the summer of 1942, more than 120 members of the Rote Kapelle were arrested. This group, centered around Harro Schulze-Boysen and Arvid Harnack, wanted to help Jews document the crimes of the Nazi regime and distribute leaflets. More than 50 members were sentenced to death and executed.
German Resistance Memorial Center
On July 19, 1953, the ceremonial unveiling of the Memorial to the German Resistance took place in Berlin in the inner courtyard of the Bendlerblock building, the place where Count Stauffenberg was executed after the failed Hitler assassination. In addition, however, the memorial also commemorates all the other courageous men and women who stood up against the Hitler regime.
An enduring symbol
Despite its failure, the resistance to Hitler on July 20, 1944, became a strong symbol. A few days before, Stauffenberg's co-conspirator Henning von Tresckow had concluded that success was no longer what mattered: The important thing was "that the German resistance movement had dared to risk its life in front of the world and in front of history."
There were other resistance operations, such as the narrowly failed attempt by carpenter Georg Elser to kill Hitler using a homemade bomb in a Munich beer hall in 1939, or the leaflet campaign by a group of young friends known as the White Rose. They were later unjustly overshadowed by "the late, not to say belated resistance of the conservative elites," as Wolfgang Benz judged the July 20, 1944 plot.
'The Holocaust did not interest them'
The remembrance of Operation Valkyrie and the assassination attempt has shifted over time. For a long time after the war ended, its initiators were still regarded as traitors. Stauffenberg's wife, for example, was initially refused the pension received by widows. Later, the conspirators were officially designated as heroes: Streets, schools and barracks were named after them, and public buildings were decorated with flags every July 20. Swearing-in ceremonies for Bundeswehr armed forces recruits were held on the anniversary: The military of democratic Germany invoked the resistance fighters surrounding the former Wehrmacht officer Stauffenberg.
July 20 plotter Stauffenberg as role model 02:43
But there was always criticism of those involved in the plot. Stauffenberg biographer Thomas Karlauf pointed out that the group first acted in the European summer of 1944, shortly after the Allies landed in Normandy. Following Germany's rapid military victories over Poland and France in 1940, Stauffenberg had enthused: "What a change in such a brief time!" He and the other men who participated in the military resistance took a "very, very long path to reformation," said Benz, adding: "The Holocaust did not interest them at all." Faced with a looming military defeat, they wanted to try to "save what can be saved" for Germany by initiating a coup.
Stauffenberg, not a democrat?
Fellow historian Johannes Hürter is of the view that Stauffenberg was no democrat: He had an authoritarian form of government in mind for Germany if the assassination had been successful.
Wolfgang Benz makes a slightly less harsh judgment: "Under any circumstances, Germany would have become a constitutional state again. But democracy as we know it, as it was established in the Basic Law constitution, was not the vision of the July 20 conspirators."
Many Germans today think first of July 20, 1944, when it comes to the resistance against National Socialism. Claus Schenk Graf von Stauffenberg, as a result, has become its face. But there were many other heroes who rebelled against the terror of the Nazi regime: Jews, communists, people in the church, artists, partisans. There were certainly also people who resisted in silence and whose deeds, unlike those of the July 20 attackers, have since been forgotten.
This article was first published in German on 20.07.2019. It was updated and published in English on 19.07.2024.
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