Saturday, February 08, 2020

Wasp nests used to date ancient Kimberley rock art

by Lito Vilisoni Wilson, University of Melbourne
**Wasp nests used to date ancient Kimberley rock art
Wasp nests near the paintings have given scientists a major breakthrough on Kimberley rock art. Credit: Damien Finch
Mud wasp nests have helped establish a date for one of the ancient styles of Aboriginal rock art in the Kimberley.
University of Melbourne and ANSTO scientists put the Gwion Gwion art period around 12,000 years old.
"This is the first time we have been able to confidently say Gwion style paintings were created around 12,000 years ago," said Ph.D. student Damien Finch, from the School of Earth Sciences at the University of Melbourne. "No one has been able present the scientific evidence to say that before."
One wasp  date suggested one Gwion  was older than 16,000 years, but the pattern of the other 23 dates is consistent with the Gwion Gwion period being 12,000 years old.
The , more than twice as old as the Giza Pyramids, depict graceful human figures with a wide range of decorations including headdresses, arm bands, and anklets. Some of the paintings are as small as 15cm, others are more than two meters high.
The details of the breakthrough are detailed in the paper 12,000-year-old Aboriginal  art from the Kimberley region, Western Australia, now published in Science Advances.
More than 100 mud wasp nests collected from Kimberley sites, with the permission of the Traditional Owners, were crucial in identifying the age of the unique rock art.
Wasp nests used to date ancient Kimberley rock art
Two classic Gwion human figures with headdresses and arm and waist decorations. Credit: Mark Jones
"A painting beneath a wasp nest must be older than the nest, and a painting on top of a nest must be younger than the nest," Mr Finch said. "If you date enough of the nests, you build up a pattern and can narrow down an age range for paintings in a particular style."
Lack of organic matter in the pigment used to create the art had previously ruled out radiocarbon dating. But the University of Melbourne and ANSTO scientists were able to use dates on 24 mud wasp nests under and over the art to determine both maximum and minimum age constraints for paintings in the Gwion style.
The project was initiated by Professor Andy Gleadow and Professor Janet Hergt, from the School of Earth Sciences, and started in 2014 with funding from the Australian Research Council and the Kimberley Foundation. It is the first time in 20 years scientists have been able to date a range of these ancient artworks.
Wasp nests used to date ancient Kimberley rock art
Ado French, from one of the families of local Traditional Owners, in front of a pair of Gwion rock art figures. Credit: Mark Jones
"The Kimberley contains some of the world's most visually spectacular and geographically extensive records of Indigenous rock art, estimated to include tens of thousands of sites, only a small fraction of which have been studied intensively," said Professor Gleadow.
Professor Hergt said being able to estimate the age of Gwion art is important as it can now be placed into the context of what was happening in the environment and what we know from excavations about other human activities at the same time.
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VIDEO Early morning, on the King George river in the far north Kimberley region of Western Australia. Rock art sites are prolific in the ancient sandstone rock shelters on either side of the river. Credit: Damien Finch
Dr. Vladimir Levchenko, an ANSTO expert in radiocarbon dating and co-author, said rock art is always problematic for dating because the pigment used usually does not contain carbon, the surfaces are exposed to intense weathering and nothing is known about the techniques used thousands of years ago.
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VIDEO Mud wasp collecting mud, building a nest and provisioning the nest with prey (paralysed caterpillars). Credit: Damien Finch
"Beeswax or resin have also been used—usually on more modern samples," Dr. Levchenko said.
"Although soil is full of carbon, most of it is easily degradable. However, charcoal is more likely to survive for longer periods. There is lots of black carbon in Australian soil because of bushfires."
Explore further
The hi-tech archaeological scientists
More information: Damien Finch et al. 12,000-Year-old Aboriginal rock art from the Kimberley region, Western Australia, Science Advances (2020). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aay3922
Journal information: Science Advances 
Provided by University of Melbourne 
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Tropical trees are living time capsules of human history

by Max Planck Society
Trees in the Amazon are time capsules of human history, from culture to colonialism
A Brazil nut tree in Jaú National Park. Credit: Victor Caetano-Andrade
In a new article published in Trends in Plant Science, an international team of scientists presents the combined use of dendrochronology, radiocarbon dating and isotopic and genetic analysis as a means of investigating the effects of human activities on forest disturbances and the growth dynamics of tropical tree species. The study presents the potential applicability of these methods for investigating prehistoric, historical and industrial periods in tropical forests around the world and suggests that they have the potential to detect time-transgressive anthropogenic threats, insights that can inform and guide conservation priorities in these rapidly disappearing environments.
Led by scientists from the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History and co-authored by leading scientists at the National Institute for Amazonian Research, The Max Planck Institute for Biogeochemisty and the Max Planck Institute for Developmental Biology, the study shows that tropical trees store records of changing human populations and their management practices, including activities that ultimately led to a 'domestication' of tropical landscapes. The study promotes a dialogue between various fields of research to ensure that tropical trees are acknowledged for their role in both cultural and natural ecosystems.
Tropical forests as centers of past human action
Tropical forests, long thought of as barriers to human migration, agricultural experimentation, and dense sedentary populations, have until recently been considered 'Green Deserts' in the context of past human activity. However, the last two decades have seen a wealth of research from various disciplines highlight extensive and diverse evidence of plant and animal domestication, including forest management, landscape alteration, and the deliberate translocation of wild taxa by ancient human societies—including the inhabitants of some of the largest pre-industrial cities on the face of the planet.
Western colonialism and the expansion of global capitalism resulted in new human impacts on these environments, with consumer decisions in Europe driving deforestation and tropical resource exploitation as they do to this day. Understanding how different societies, economic systems, and administrative organizations changed tropical forests is essential if we are to properly develop sustainable conservation policies.
Trees in the Amazon are time capsules of human history, from culture to colonialism
Researchers sampling a Brazil nut tree in Tapirapé-Aquiri National Forest. Credit: Victor Caetano-Andrade
Yet, high-resolution records of human impacts on tropical ecosystems are often difficult to come by. "Amazingly, this whole story has neglected some of the largest, most ancient witnesses tropical forests have to offer: their trees," says Victor Caetano Andrade, lead author of the study at the Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History. "Archaeological excavation and archaeobotanical analyses has led to great strides in our recognition of past human lives in the tropics, but the trees themselves standing next to the trench have things to say as well," he continues.
Tree rings—a living stratigraphy
The study of tree rings has been frequently used in temperate environments to create a picture of how changing climate and human activities have altered forests. However, such work has been limited in the tropics, due to perceptions that a lack of seasonality meant no rings would be visible. As the authors note, however, it has now been demonstrated that more than 200 tropical tree species form annual rings. This opens up a whole new avenue for the exploration of changing tropical forest conditions in the past.
Counting tree rings can, alongside radiocarbon dating, produce robust, high-resolution chronologies or 'stratigraphies' of the growth of an individual tree. A change in the size of growth rings identified across a number of trees in the same forest can provide an indicator of abrupt changes in environmental conditions. In addition, these rings can be sampled chemically to investigate how climate conditions changed over time and how such changes correlate with tree growth. Where no strong correlation between climate and growth is visible, the door opens to other potential explanations, chief among them being human activity.
Trees in the Amazon are time capsules of human history, from culture to colonialism
This figure shows how humans promote or suppress trees, past and present. Credit: Caeteno-Adrade et al. / Trends in Plant Science
As Victor Caetano Andrade puts it, "There are some species of special importance for humans, for example as food trees or trees used for a particular purpose. In these cases humans would be likely to undertake forest management practices, such as clearing the understory, opening up the forest, and actively protecting individual trees." By contrast, other species may have been deliberately removed for use as construction material or to make way for settlement. Combining observations of tree growth with local historical and archaeological data allows scientists to look at the relationship between tree communities and past human societies and their economic practices.
Tree genes point to pre-Columbian forest management
DNA analysis of modern trees is commonly used by companies and foresters to select trees with economically desirable traits. However, modern genetic analysis, as well as analysis of preserved specimens, can reveal important insights into how populations of a given species have changed through space and time. Where relevant, this genetic analysis can be used to look at processes of domestication, including the selection for particular traits. The ability to associate patterns of genetic diversity for economically important trees with known archaeological records promises to reveal new insights into the settlement of tropical environments in the past.
The authors' review shows that in many cases in Central and South America, maximum genetic diversity of these species is found in areas with intense pre-Columbian human occupation. However, in addition to investigations of the distant past, the present study also shows that sampling of modern trees such as mahogany can document changes in genetic diversity before and after logging episodes. The authors propose that, given the advance of full genome sequencing, applying such methods to ancient modern trees in a given forest may make it possible to genetically reconstruct past human clearance and management events—particularly where detailed historical and archaeological information is also available.
While the majority of ecological study on the supposedly 'pristine' tropics has focused on how changes in forest structure and tree growth are linked to climate fluctuations and natural disturbances, the present research highlights centuries of human impact. As study co-author Dr. Patrick Roberts states, "The work evaluated here demonstrates two important findings: first, that human societies, from hunter-gatherers to urban dwellers, have played a significant role in tropical tree growth in the past; and second, that this role can be observed in trees that still stand today."
Furthermore, as Victor Caetano Andrade continues, "Multidisciplinary approaches to ancient trees will enable us to look at how forest management changed in the tropics from pre-colonial to post-colonial scenarios, and from pre-industrial to 21st century threats. The resolution available is remarkable and will allow us to get a handle on the legacies of past activities, and how changing practices have placed new pressures on these highly threatened environments". The authors conclude by arguing that it is essential that archaeologists and ecologists work together to preserve not just the natural benefits of tropical trees, but also the records of human cultural heritage and knowledge that span millennia stored within them.
Human history through tree rings: Trees in Amazonia reveal pre-colonial human disturbance
More information: Trends in Plant Science, Caeteno-Adrade et al.: "Tropical trees as time capsules of anthropogenic activity" https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/fulltext/S1360-1385(19)30335-8 , DOI: 10.1016/j.tplants.2019.12.010
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Bogong Bikkies: Nutritionally suitable baked biscuits help mountain pygmy-possums after bushfires

by Marissa Parrott and Naomi Ezra Davis, The Conversation
Looks like an ANZAC biscuit, tastes like a protein bar: Bogong Bikkies help mountain pygmy-possums after fire
Credit: Zoos Victoria/Tim Bawden, Author provided
Australia's recent bushfires have razed over ten million hectares, and killed at least a billion animals. It's likely countless more will die in the aftermath, as many species face starvation as the landscape slowly regenerates.
Even before the bushfires hit, we were working on supplementary  to help recover the critically endangered mountain pygmy-possum. They are seriously threatened by , historic habitat destruction and more frequent intense fires.
Just months ago we landed on a recipe for Bogong Bikkies, nutritionally suitable baked biscuits that have the consistency of an ANZAC biscuit, taste a bit like a nutty gym protein bar and smell a little like Cheds crackers.
We never imagined our work would be needed so quickly—or urgently—but now our Bogong Bikkies are being deployed across the boulder fields of NSW, providing vital supplementary food to native species such as pygmy-possums, native bush rats and dusky antechinus.
Hungry, hungry possums
Mountain pygmy-possums are the only Australian marsupial that hibernate every winter under snow, making it essential they build fat reserves before their long winter sleep. The main food source during their spring/summer breeding season is the migratory bogong moth.
However in 2017 and 2018 the billions of expected bogong moths largely failed to arrive, leaving many females underweight and unable to produce enough milk for their young. Due to a lack of food, 50-95% of females in monitored Victorian locations lost their entire litters.
Looks like an ANZAC biscuit, tastes like a protein bar: Bogong Bikkies help mountain pygmy-possums after fire
Mountain Pygmy-possum mum and joeys. Credit: Tim Bawden/Zoos Victoria., Author provided
In response, Zoos Victoria's Healesville Sanctuary proposed creating a new supplementary food that could be used in the wild to support possums and their young until moth numbers recover.
Ten years ago, we analyzed bogong moths to determine the fats, proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals required for a suitable breeding diet for possums in our captive breeding program.
While we have a successful diet for the possums in our care that includes nuts, insects, vegetables and a specially developed "bogong moth substitute", the blend has the consistency of a soft caramel (or bogong moth abdomen) – not suitable for feeding in the wild. We needed a shelf-stable, long-lasting, nutritionally suitable food that could feed remote wild populations.
That's the way the cookie crumbles
Throughout 2019, using our existing analyses of bogong moths, we worked with world experts in veterinary nutrition to develop Bogong Bikkies—nutritionally suitable baked biscuits for mountain pygmy-possums, and other species that live alongside them. We collaborated with Australian wildlife diet experts, Wombaroo, to have our new product commercially developed.
We then trialled the bikkies with the possums in our care at Healesville Sanctuary, so we could monitor whether the food was palatable or caused any health issues. It was a huge success. The possums liked the food, but happily ate other food too. This was exactly what we wanted: something that was completely safe and would be readily accepted, but not chosen over natural food sources.
Looks like an ANZAC biscuit, tastes like a protein bar: Bogong Bikkies help mountain pygmy-possums after fire
A possum feeder in the wild. Credit: Zoos Victoria, Author provided
Once satisfied our captive trials were a success, we had to find the best way to deliver food safely to possums in boulder fields in the wild. This meant buying or making 12 different feeder prototypes. Our local hardware store knew us all by name! We tested four feeders, most of which were designed and built on-site, and chose the most successful three for trials in the wild.
Working with Parks Victoria and the Victorian Mountain Pygmy-possum Recovery Team, we tested these three feeders at 20 stations deep in the Alpine National Park, monitored with remote infrared cameras.
Over the last few months, Zoos Victoria and Parks Victoria staff have been refilling feeders, changing camera batteries and analysing hundreds of thousands of images and videos. After months of work, watching wild mountain pygmy-possums, native bush rats and dusky antechinus visiting our feeders and eating the food was a triumph.
A raging inferno
Halfway through our research, some of the worst bushfires ever seen in Australia left habitats destroyed and our precious wildlife dead or starving. Victoria mountain pygmy-possum populations have so far not been directly impacted by fires this season, but populations on northern Mount Kosciuszko, New South Wales, were hard hit.
While the habitat was destroyed, we hoped some possums had survived deep in the boulder fields, as they have with previous fires. But surviving the initial fire is no help, if their environment and food sources have been so devastated that they can't gain enough weight to hibernate before winter's snow.
Looks like an ANZAC biscuit, tastes like a protein bar: Bogong Bikkies help mountain pygmy-possums after fire
An infrared image showing a wild mountain pygmy-possum eating a Bogong Bikkie from a feeder. Credit: Zoos Victoria, Author provided
Within days of the January fires, we had packaged up our most successful feeder type, examples of our cooked bikkies, our best recipe and 30kg of Bogong Bikkie mix, and rushed it urgently to our NSW partners.
Teams from the NSW government's Saving Our Species and NSW National Parks and Wildlife Service have now built and deployed 62 feeders and water stations in six boulder fields, baked batches of bikkies and started emergency feeding.
We're thankful to have the food developed and research ready to assist. It is important to note, though, that such supplementary feeding is very intensive, and only appropriate for  facing emergency situations, such as catastrophic fires.
If these bushfires teach us nothing else, it is the value of preparation, hard work and early funding to develop a range of conservation tools.
While we should all hope for the best, we must plan for the worst.
Help track 4 billion bogong moths with your smartphone–and save pygmy possums from extinction
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Using submarine cables to detect earthquakes

by CORDIS
Using submarine cables to detect earthquakes
Credit: Vismar UK, Shutterstock
Installing seismic sensors on the ocean floor can be a difficult and expensive task. But what if seismic activity could be monitored by using something that's already down there – pre-existing submarine telecommunications cables? Partially supported by the EU-funded FINESSE project, an international team of geoscientists has used fiber optic communications cables at the bottom of the North Sea as a giant seismic network. The team tracked both earthquakes and ocean waves.
Their research was published in the journal Nature Communications. "We have presented and analyzed our observations of seismic and  on an ocean-bottom DAS [distributed acoustic sensing] array offshore Belgium, demonstrating that DAS arrays utilizing existing ocean-bottom fiber optic installations can offer high-value seismographic and oceanographic data products."
Quoted in a news release by the California Institute of Technology (Caltech), study lead author Ethan F. Williams says: "Fiber optic communications cables are growing more and more common on the sea floor. Rather than place a whole new device, we can tap into some of this fiber and start observing seismicity immediately."
DAS, the technique used by the researchers, was developed for energy exploration but was repurposed for seismology. It employs a photonic device that sends short pulses of laser light down the fiber optic . The Caltech news release states: "Tiny imperfections in the cable reflect back miniscule amounts of the light, allowing the imperfections to act as 'waypoints.' As a seismic wave jostles the fiber cable, the waypoints shift minutely in location, changing the travel time of the reflected light waves and thus allowing scientists to track the progression of the wave." The DAS instrument used in this study was built and operated by a team from FINESSE project participant University of Alcalá. "Seafloor DAS is a new frontier of geophysics that may bring orders-of-magnitude more submarine seismic data and a new understanding of the deep Earth's interior and major faults," says Zhongwen Zhan, assistant professor of geophysics and study co-author.
Transforming windfarms into a seismic network
Led by researchers from Caltech, the team employed a 40 000-m section of fiber optic cable that connects a North Sea wind farm to the shore, according to the same news release. "With the flip of a switch, we have an array of 4,000 sensors that would've cost millions to place," Williams says.
Williams adds that the fiber network could detect and record an earthquake of magnitude 8.2 near Fiji in August 2018, which "proves the ability of the technology to fill in some of the massive blind spots in the global seismic network," as noted in the news release.
The FINESSE (Fibre Nervous Sensing Systems) project that supported the study will run until September 2020. The project website states: "The objective behind FINESSE … is to mimic the nervous system of living bodies by turning man-made and natural structures into objects that are sensitive to external stimuli owing to advanced distributed fiber-optic sensor technology, with the objective to either give early warning in case of possible danger or occurrence of damage, or to optimize the operation of the structure to allow for a sustainable use of natural resources and assets."
Underwater telecom cables make superb seismic network
More information: FINESSE project website: http://itn-finesse.eu/ Ethan F. Williams et al. Distributed sensing of microseisms and teleseisms with submarine dark fibers, Nature Communications (2019). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13262-7
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Literature online: Research into reading habits almost in real time

by University of Basel
reading
Credit: CC0 Public Domain
Young people make intensive use of digital networks to read, write and comment on literary texts. But their reading behavior varies considerably depending on whether the title is from the world of popular or classic literature, as revealed by a new study that takes the reading platform Wattpad as an example. This computer-aided analysis under the direction of the University of Basel was published in the journal PLOS ONE.
Time and time again, people complain that young people no longer read enough—with the habit of deeper reading, in particular, becoming lost. But this overlooks the fact that young people not only read printed books, but also use several different forms of media to read and write literature. Many teenagers turn to networks such as Goodreads, BücherTreff and LovelyBooks in order to read literature, discuss it with other readers and even write their own literature. This is termed "social reading."
The phenomenal scale of "social reading" is clear from the Wattpad platform, on which more than 80 million predominantly young people worldwide exchange some 100,000 stories in more than 50 languages every day. Fanfiction, in which fans write continuations of famous stories such as Harry Potter, is a particularly popular genre.
Computer-aided analysis
For the first time, a team of researchers from Switzerland and Italy have researched the use of the digital reading platform Wattpad in greater detail. Their research incorporated computer-aided techniques, such as network analysis and sentiment analysis, in order to detect patterns in reading behavior within the millions of datasets.
Using statistical techniques, the researchers analyzed which books young people around the world read and comment on, and also write themselves on platforms such as Wattpad. The analysis looked at reading preferences, the emotionality and intensity of comments made about books, the networking between young readers and the potential educational impact.
Passionate reading
This revealed how intensively  read not only youth literature—"teen fiction"—but also classic literature by, for example, Jane Austen or Hermann Hesse, commenting on individual sentences up to several hundred times and using the works as a model for stories of their own. It is also striking to see that the young readers are highly emotionally involved in this process.
Nevertheless, there are clear differences depending on whether a text is classified as popular  or belongs to the classical literary canon. For example, teen fiction is read and commented on much more frequently on Wattpad than classic works. The researchers also observed that readers often stop reading classic works after the first few chapters, whereas teen fiction manages to captivate readers over longer sections of the plot.
Another aspect that varied by genre was the degree of interchange between users: readers of teen fiction formed networks with strong social bonds, with frequent interaction. Among readers of the classics, on the other hand, the researchers identified a more cognitively oriented style of interaction, in which users helped one another to understand and interpret the works.
A new understanding of culture
"For the first time, we're able to analyze reading behavior almost in real ," says study leader Professor Gerhard Lauer, from the Digital Humanities Lab at the University of Basel. "Social media is ushering in a revolution in our understanding of culture. Platforms such as Wattpad, Spotify and Netflix enable culture to be understood in a density and accuracy that goes way beyond previous approaches in the humanities and social sciences."
Writers and readers go mobile and social at Wattpad
More information: Federico Pianzola et al, Wattpad as a resource for literary studies. Quantitative and qualitative examples of the importance of digital social reading and readers' comments in the margins, PLOS ONE (2020). DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226708

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Wikipedia, a source of information on natural disasters biased towards rich countries

by Universitat Pompeu Fabra - Barcelona
flood
Credit: CC0 Public Domain
Floods are the natural disaster that cause the most damage each year throughout the world. Valerio Lorini (JRC-UPF), Javier Rando (UPF), Diego Saez-Trumper (Wikimedia), and Carlos Castillo (UPF) are the authors of a study they are to present at the 17th International Conference on Information Systems for Crisis Response and Management (ISCRAM 2020), Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Virginia (USA), from 24 to 27 May, entitled: "Uneven Coverage of Natural Disasters in Wikipedia: the Case of Floods."
The study corresponds to a line of research led by Carlos Castillo, coordinator of the Web Science and Social Computing group (WSSC) at the Department of Information and Communication Technologies (DTIC), UPF, within the active collaboration it enjoys with the Joint Research Center (JRC), the body that advises the European Commission on scientific and technical issues. The principal investigator is Valerio Lorini (JRC-UPF), a student of the Ph.D. programme in ICT at UPF who is being supervised by Carlos Castillo, with Javier Rando, co-author and student of the UPF bachelor's degree in Mathematical Engineering in Data Science.
In the management of , access to unofficial data offers the opportunity to dispose of different information from that available through other means. It can also serve to detect bias in news content. "We believe that Wikipedia is a valuable, free source of information and that it could be beneficial to researchers working on reducing the risk of disasters if the biases are identified, measured and mitigated," Castillo asserts.
In their study, the authors focused on the English version of Wikipedia, which they considered by far the most complete version of this encyclopaedia. Wikipedia, an encyclopaedia that is produced collaboratively, contains detailed information on many natural and human disasters, especially when incidents result in a large number of casualties, and its editors are particularly adept at adding real-time information, as the crisis develops.
As a source of information related to natural disasters, the authors show that on Wikipedia, there is a greater tendency to cover events in  than in poor countries. By performing careful, large-scale analysis of automatic content, "we show how  coverage in Wikipedia leans towards wealthy, English-speaking countries, particularly the USA and Canada," they claim in their work. "We also note that the coverage of flooding in low-income countries and in countries in South America, is substantially less than the coverage of flooding in middle-income countries," they add.
For this research the authors estimated the coverage of floods in Wikipedia taking many variables into account:  (GDP), gross national income (GNI), geographical location, the number of English speakers, fatalities and various indices describing the country's level of vulnerability.
They have identified a set of reliable references about floods
With the support of hydrologists, one of the contributions of this work is a set of validated references from several independent organizations that collect data on floods for different purposes: insurers, government agencies, the UN, etc. They all collect data on flooding on a global scale and dispose of reliable databases to work with and compare.
Having identified the sources of information, the authors moved to the experimental phase of the study. Using 458 events that had been reliably described as floods, according to the records of two or three sources of reliable data: Europe's Floodlist; the United Nations' Emergency Events Database (EM-DAT), and the Dartmouth Flood Observatory (DFO) of the University of California (USA), the authors compared these data with the entries in Wikipedia to locate these events and see if they were consistent or not with the data sources contrasted in terms of location and time references.
"The results of our analysis are consistent over several dimensions, and draw a box where Wikipedia coverage is biased towards some countries, particularly the most industrialized and where large settlements are English speaking, and at the expense of other countries, particularly lower income, more vulnerable ones," the authors suggest.
The results show that the tools that use data from social networks or collaborative platforms should be carefully evaluated to avoid bias, and that Wikipedia editors must make a greater effort to cover  suffered by the neediest countries. These results correspond only to one possible type of natural disaster, floods, but other types of events could also be considered for study.

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