Belarus' Lukashenko says he will leave his post after months of protests, state media reports

Saphora Smith and Tatyana Chistikova
Fri, November 27, 2020

Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko said he would step down after a new constitution is adopted, the state-owned BelTA news agency cited him as saying on Friday.

"I am not going to shape the constitution to suit my needs," he is quoted as saying. "I am not going to be the president once the new constitution is in place."

Belarus has been rocked by months of anti-government protests ever since Lukashenko — often referred to as “Europe’s last dictator” — claimed victory in an Aug. 9 presidential election that his opponents say was rigged, a charge he denies.

It remained unclear whether Lukashenko's comments were sincere or whether he was just paying lip service to the prospect of him stepping aside. In any case, it is the first time he has publicly reflected on how the country will be governed when he is no longer president.

His comments on the constitution came as he was visiting a Minsk hospital on Friday. He appeared to suggest that the current constitution concentrates too much power in the hands of the president.

“We need to create a new constitution but it should benefit the country. I don't want the country to fall to ruin later on,” he said, according to the news agency.

Lukashenko has maintained his grasp on power in the former Soviet nation for the last 26 years and met the protests with a violent crackdown. Hundreds have been arrested and there have been allegations of torture from people held in custody.

This is his sixth term as president.

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The latest news comes after the European Union imposed sanctions earlier this month on Lukashenko and 14 other officials over their roles in the security crackdown launched during the protests.

Pictures from the streets of the Belarusian capital Minsk earlier this week showed people protesting against police violence, and brandishing the former white-red-white flag of Belarus that has become a symbol of protest in the country.

More than three months after an historic protest movement emerged across Belarus, people continue to take to the streets.

Belarusian President Alexander Lukashenko said he would step down after a new constitution is adopted, the state-owned BelTA news agency cited him as saying on Friday.

"I am not going to shape the constitution to suit my needs," he is quoted as saying. "I am not going to be the president once the new constitution is in place."

Belarus has been rocked by months of anti-government protests ever since Lukashenko — often referred to as “Europe’s last dictator” — claimed victory in an Aug. 9 presidential election that his opponents say was rigged, a charge he denies.

It remained unclear whether Lukashenko's comments were sincere or whether he was just paying lip service to the prospect of him stepping aside. In any case, it is the first time he has publicly reflected on how the country will be governed when he is no longer president.

His comments on the constitution came as he was visiting a Minsk hospital on Friday. He appeared to suggest that the current constitution concentrates too much power in the hands of the president.

“We need to create a new constitution but it should benefit the country. I don't want the country to fall to ruin later on,” he said, according to the news agency.

Lukashenko has maintained his grasp on power in the former Soviet nation for the last 26 years and met the protests with a violent crackdown. Hundreds have been arrested and there have been allegations of torture from people held in custody.

This is his sixth term as president.

The latest news comes after the European Union imposed sanctions earlier this month on Lukashenko and 14 other officials over their roles in the security crackdown launched during the protests.

Pictures from the streets of the Belarusian capital Minsk earlier this week showed people protesting against police violence, and brandishing the former white-red-white flag of Belarus that has become a symbol of protest in the country.

More than three months after an historic protest movement emerged across Belarus, people continue to take to the streets.

This is a breaking story. Please check back for details.

Reuters and The Associated Press contributed to this report.

BBC BACKGROUNDER
Ethiopia's Tigray crisis: Fears of a march into guerrilla warfare

Thu, November 26, 2020

The regional government in Tigray has a powerful force

After being ensconced in power in Ethiopia's northern Tigray region for nearly three decades, the Tigray People's Liberation Front (TPLF) could be preparing to return to the mountains to launch a guerrilla war against the federal government.

But the Ethiopian military believes that it can prevent this from happening through the offensive it launched on 4 November to oust the TPLF and arrest more than 70 of its leaders and military officers.

They include veterans of the 17-year guerrilla war that led to the TPLF seizing power in the federal capital, Addis Ababa, in 1991 and who then controlled the country's military and intelligence services until Prime Minister Abiy Ahmed purged them when he took office in 2018. He accused them of being repressive and corrupt - charges they deny.

Having retreated to their strongholds in Tigray while Mr Abiy established his control over the rest of Ethiopia, earlier this month they seized control of a key federal military base - which is part of the Northern Command - located near Tigray's capital, Mekelle, apparently without much resistance.

'Ready to die'

The International Crisis Group (ICG), a non-governmental organisation which focuses on conflict-prevention, described it as the federal military's largest regional military command.

Tigray's mountainous landscape makes it conducive for guerrilla warfare

The TPLF seized an array of weapons, including rockets and missiles, though the Ethiopian military still has considerable air power, including fighter jets and helicopter gunships.

Their operation came after Mr Abiy's government decided to redirect funding away from the Tigray leadership, accusing them of holding an "illegal" election for the regional legislature in September, rather than abiding by a federal decision to postpone all polls because of coronavirus.

"Because of the changed political dynamics over the last two years, there has been significant recruitment and training in Tigray"", Source: William Davison, Source description: Ethiopia analyst, Image: The Tigray region's special police forces

TPLF officials say they took the parts of the Northern Command because they believed that federal intervention was imminent. Mr Abiy responded by accusing the TPLF of crossing the "final red line", and ordered air strikes and the deployment of troops to Tigray.

Twenty-two days into the conflict, Mr Abiy says the army is now launching the "final phase" of its operation in Tigray to take control of Mekelle, which will be over in the "coming days".

But TPLF leader Debretsion Gebremichael has been defiant, telling AFP earlier in the week: "We are people of principle and ready to die in defence of our right to administer our region."
Which side has more fighters?

ICG Ethiopia analyst William Davison says the TPLF may be able to call on more than 200,000 fighters - from militias in villages to special forces in the regional government.

"Because of the changed political dynamics over the last two years, there has been significant recruitment and training in Tigray," he told the BBC.

Amhara militiamen have been fighting on the side of the Ethiopian army in Tigray

The ICG does not give an estimate of the strength of the Ethiopian military, but Reuters news agency quotes the Janes security data group as saying that it has around 140,000 active personnel, most of them in the army.

If these estimates are correct, the Ethiopian military may have fewer soldiers than the TPLF, but it can bolster its numbers by drawing on the special forces of other regional governments - Ethiopian law allows each of them to have these paramilitary units to provide security within their territory.

Significantly, special forces from the Amhara regional government - which has a long-running land dispute with Tigray - helped federal troops secure territory in western Tigray when the conflict started.

"In the west, joint federal and Amhara control may be more established because those forces outnumbered and overpowered local Tigray forces," said Mr Davison.

"There are also more flat areas in the west, giving a conventional army more advantage," he said, adding that this was unlike the terrain in the "core" of Tigray, around cities in the east, like Mekelle, where it was rugged and mountainous, making it more conducive for guerrilla warfare.
Tigray 'blockaded'

Arhe Hamednaca, who took part in guerrilla wars against previous Ethiopian governments and went on to become an MP in Sweden, said the offensive in the west had also been aimed at securing the border with Sudan.

He said this was vital - to prevent the TPLF from setting up bases there as it had done when it fought the Marxist regime of Mengistu Haile Mariam 29 years ago.

"The only way for the TPLF to escape and to get fresh supplies is through Sudan," he said.

Map of Tigray region

Furthermore, there is also no outlet to the Red Sea through Eritrea, as there was in the 1980s, when Eritrea forces were allied with the TPLF against Mengistu.

Prime Minister Abiy has become a staunch ally of Eritrea's President Isaias Afwerki, who fought a bitter border war with the Ethiopia, when it was under TPLF control.

"Times have changed. The TPLF's supply routes are not flowing, and to its north is President Isaias Afwerki's Eritrea, its principle enemy," BBC Tigrinya editor Samuel Ghebhrehiwet said.
More on the Tigray crisis:


Why Ethiopia is spiralling out of control


The man at the heart of Ethiopia's Tigray conflict


Marooned by conflict: 'My little brother needs medicine'


Crisis has engulfed Ethiopia. Here’s what it means

Several sources in Eritrea have told the BBC that Ethiopian troops have been crossing the border to regroup and to treat their wounded in military hospitals - though both governments deny Eritrean involvement in the Tigrayan conflict.

"Tigray is blockaded. The TPLF cannot sustain a conventional war," Mr Davison said.

But that doesn't necessarily mean that federal forces will have the quick victory they hope for.

Mr Arhe notes that there are numerous examples of guerrilla fighters taking on better armed opponents.

"The Americans had all sorts of drones and fighter jets in Afghanistan, but the Taliban survived," he said.

"The Houthi rebels in Yemen have survived UAE and Saudi weapon superiority."

Mr Davison said that while federal troops were advancing towards Mekelle, it was unclear how many towns and cities they had actually taken control of along the way and how many they had just passed through.
Who will Tigrayans back?

Either way, many Tigrayan fighters may eventually retreat to villages and surrounding mountains to prepare for a guerrilla war that could receive significant public support, he added.

"Though federal officials claim the opposite, many Tigrayans seem to oppose the intervention because they believe it is to remove a legitimately elected regional government," Mr Davison said.

There has been in a surge in Tigrayan nationalism in recent years

Moreover, they generally support the federal system that the TPLF helped introduced after it took power in Addis Ababa in 1991, as the best way to protect their political, linguistic and cultural rights, he added.

In contrast, the TPLF accuses Mr Abiy of trying to establish a more unitary type of government.

The BBC's Tigrinya editor says that while a surge in Tigrayan nationalism could work in the TPLF's favour, the possibility that many people may instead back the federal government cannot be ruled out.

"During the armed struggle [against Mengistu], the people of Tigray were fully behind the fighters. But in the nearly three decades that the TPLF has been in power, many Tigrayans objected to the leadership because of systemic corruption and oppression," Mr Samuel said.

He believes that the outcome of the battle for Mekelle will determine whether or not the TPLF can wage a guerrilla war, but even if the Ethiopian military gains the upper hand, he does not envisage the conflict ending without proper negotiations between the different sides.

Invasive wasp species forcing aeroplanes to abandon take-off in Australia


Giovanni Torre
Thu, November 26, 2020

Officials inspect an engine of Malaysian budget carrier AirAsia X after it was diverted and forced to land because an engine was damaged during take-off - REUTERS

An imported wasp species is posing a “significant risk” to aircraft safety in Australia, new research has found.

Planes were forced to abandon take-off and, in some cases, return shortly after departure in a series of incidents at Brisbane Airport, prompting research behind a study published in the journal PLOS One on Thursday.

An experiment found that the invasive species Pachodynerus nasidens was building nests in aircraft speedometers, blocking the instruments within minutes of the wasps beginning construction. Certainty about speed is vital to safety particularly during take-off and landing.

The small black wasp with yellow bands on its pointed abdomen was first discovered in Australia during a quarantine check at the Port of Brisbane in 2010, and spotted at Brisbane Airport in 2012. The species is native to the Caribbean and South and Central America.

The wasp is nicknamed the keyhole wasp because of its tendency to take advantage of the apparent safety of artificial nooks and crannies for building nests.

Pitot probes, thin tubes that calculate airspeed by measuring the difference in pressure between air flowing into the tube through its central hole, and air entering holes drilled in the probe's side, have attracted the wasps. By blocking one or more on a plane, the wasps render data inconsistent and make pilots uncertain of their speed.

In 2013, an A330 made an emergency landing at Brisbane Airport shortly after take-off because of trouble determining speed. Subsequently the Australian Transport Safety Bureau found a wasp nest, constructed in less than two hours that had “almost totally obstructed” a pitot probe.

Brisbane Airport and consultancy firm Ecosure conducted a more than three-year study, led by Dr Alan house, involving replica pitot probes created with a 3D printer and placed around the airport. The researchers checked the probes regularly and found that time and again it was the keyhole wasp that was building nests.

Dr House said that while the keyhole wasp is not the only species that does it, they seem to be “particularly adept” at quickly building nests that block the probes.

In August 2015, an A320 flight from Brisbane to Newcastle was found to have a temperature probe blocked by a wasp nest after spending only 30 minutes on the ground in Brisbane.

While maintenance crews, and Dr House, have reported seeing a wasp fly around the nose of a plane within a minute of it arriving, they tend to wait for the aircraft to cool down before beginning to build their nests.

Then the wasp crawls inside and inspects it, flies off and finds food, paralyses it with her sting, then flies it back to the probe and stuffs it inside as a first meal for the egg she then lays, before sealing the top with mud.

While airport officials in Brisbane are taking action to combat the wasps, they fear the species will spread to other states and airports.

Thailand: Rare whale skeleton discovered

Andreas Illmer - BBC News
Fri, November 27, 2020, 

The bones still remain to be carbon-dated

An almost perfectly preserved whale skeleton thought to be between 3,000 and 5,000 years old has been discovered in Thailand.

The bones were found in early November some 12km (7.5 miles) off the coast just to the west of Bangkok.

The 12m (39ft) long skeleton is thought to be that of a Bryde's whale.


Experts hope the find might provide "a window into the past," especially for research on sea levels and biodiversity.

The partially fossilised bones are "a rare find," mammal researcher Marcus Chua of the National University of Singapore told the BBC.

"There are few whale subfossils in Asia," he said, and even fewer ones are "in such good condition".

Pictures shared by Thailand's environment minister Varawut Silpa-archa show the bones apparently almost entirely intact.

According to the politician, more than 80% of the skeleton has so far been recovered, including vertebrae, ribs, fins and one shoulder blade.

The skeleton's head alone is estimated to be about 3m in length.

Mr Chua says the discovery will allow researchers to find out more about the particular species in the past, whether there were any differences compared to today's Bryde's whales.

The skeleton will also provide information about the "paleobiological and geological conditions at that time, including sea level estimation, types of sediments, and the contemporary biological communities at that time".

"So this find provides a window into the past once the skeleton has been dated," Mr Chua says.

The bones are yet to be carbon-dated to determine their exact age, with the results expected in December.

Bryde's whales still exist around Thailand today

The gulf of Thailand has an interesting history in the last 10,000 years, the biologist points out, with sea levels possibly up to 4m higher than today and active tectonic activity.

The skeleton was found off the current coastline in Samut Sakhon.

Bryde's whales, which live worldwide in warm temperate and tropical waters, are still found in the waters around Thailand today.

Rare Cretaceous-Age Fossil Opens New Chapter in Story of Bird Evolution

A Cretaceous-age, crow-sized bird from Madagascar would have sliced its way through the air wielding a large, blade-like beak and offers important new insights on the evolution of face and beak shape in the Mesozoic forerunners of modern birds.

An international team of researchers led by Ohio University professor Dr. Patrick O’Connor and Stony Brook University professor Dr. Alan H. Turner announced the discovery today in the journal Nature.

Birds have played a pivotal role in shaping our understanding of biological evolution. As long ago as the mid-19th Century, Charles Darwin’s keen observations on the diversity of beak shape in Galapagos finches influenced his treatise on evolution through natural selection.

This fossil bird discovery adds a new twist on the evolution of skulls and beaks in birds and their close relatives, showing that evolution can work through different developmental pathways to achieve similar head shapes in very distantly related animals.

The bird is named Falcatakely, a combination of Latin and Malagasy words inspired by the small size and the sickle-shaped beak, the latter representing a completely novel face shape in Mesozoic birds.

The species is known from a single well-preserved, nearly complete skull, one that was buried in a muddy debris flow around 68 million years ago. Bird skeletons are rare in the fossil record because of their lightweight bones and small size. Bird skulls are an even rarer find. Falcatakely is the second Cretaceous bird species discovered in Madagascar by the National Science Foundation-funded team.

The delicate specimen remains partially embedded in rock due to the complex array of lightly built bones that make up the skull. Although quite small, with an estimated skull length of only 8.5 cm (~ 3 inches), the exquisite preservation reveals many important details. As one example, a complex series of grooves on the bones making up the side of the face indicate that the animal hosted an expansive keratinous covering, or beak, in life.

“As the face began to emerge from the rock, we knew that it was something very special, if not entirely unique,” notes Patrick O’Connor, professor of anatomy and neuroscience at Ohio University and lead author on the study. “Mesozoic birds with such high, long faces are completely unknown, with Falcatakely providing a great opportunity to reconsider ideas around head and beak evolution in the lineage leading to modern birds.”

Falcatakely belongs to an extinct group of birds called Enantiornithes, a group known exclusively from the Cretaceous Period and predominantly from fossils discovered in Asia. “Enantiornithines represent the first great diversification of early birds, occupying ecosystems alongside their non-avian relatives such as Velociraptor and Tyrannosaurus,” says Turner, an associate professor of anatomical sciences at Stony Brook University and study co-author. “Unlike the first birds, such as Archaeopteryx, with long tails and primitive features in the skull, enantiornithines like Falcatakely would have looked relatively modern.”

A life reconstruction of Falcatakely might leave one with the impression that this is a relatively unremarkable bird. But it is underneath the keratinous beak that the evolutionary intrigue lies. O’Connor and his colleagues couldn’t remove the individual bones of Falcatakely from the rock for study because they were much too fragile.

Instead, the research team employed high-resolution micro-computed tomography (μCT) and extensive digital modeling to virtually dissect individual bones from the rock, with enlarged 3D printing of the digital models being essential for reconstructing the skull and for comparisons with other species.

As the research progressed, it became apparent that bones making up the face in Falcatakely were organized quite unlike those of any dinosaur, avian or nonavian, despite having a face superficially similar to a number of modern bird groups alive today.

All living birds build the skeleton of their beaks in a very specific way. It’s mostly formed by a single enlarged bone called the premaxilla. In contrast, most birds from the Age of Dinosaurs, like the iconic Archaeopteryx, have relatively unspecialized snouts comprised of a small premaxilla and a large maxilla. Surprisingly, the researchers found this similar primitive arrangement of bones in Falcatakely but with an overall face shape reminiscent of certain modern birds with a high, long upper bill and completely unlike anything known in the Mesozoic.

“Falcatakely might generally resemble any number of modern birds with the skin and beak in place, however, it is the underlying skeletal structure of the face that turns what we know about bird evolutionary anatomy on its head” noted O’Connor. “There are clearly different developmental ways of organizing the facial skeleton that lead to generally similar end goals, or in this case, similar head and beak shape.”

To explore how this type of convergent anatomy evolved, O’Connor and Turner enlisted the help of their colleague Dr. Ryan Felice, an expert on skull anatomy in birds and other dinosaurs.

“We found that some modern birds like toucans and hornbills evolved very similar sickle-shaped beaks tens of millions of years after Falcatakely. What is so amazing is that these lineages converged on this same basic anatomy despite being very distantly related,” noted Felice, lecturer in human anatomy at University College London.

Falcatakely was recovered from latest Cretaceous-age (70-68 million years ago) rocks in what is now northwestern Madagascar, in what has been interpreted as a semi-arid, highly seasonal environment.

That very same environment also hosted a number of other truly bizarre animals, such as the pug-nosed, herbivorous crocodyliform Simosuchus and the recently described mammal Adalatherium. “To push the boundaries of our knowledge of Earth history and biological evolution, we have to look in unexplored or underexplored regions,” Turner noted.

“The discovery of Falcatekely underscores that much of the deep history of the Earth is still shrouded in mystery,” added O’Connor, “particularly from those parts of the planet that have been relatively less explored.” Madagascar has always pushed the boundaries of biological potential. Indeed, the unique biota of Madagascar has intrigued natural historians and scientists across many disciplines, often framed in the context of evolution in isolation on the large island continent.

“The more we learn about Cretaceous-age animals, plants, and ecosystems in what is now Madagascar, the more we see its unique biotic signature extends far back into the past and is not merely reflective of the island ecosystem in recent times.”

OHIO UNIVERSITY

Dinosaur-era bird with scythe-like beak sheds light on avian diversity

Will Dunham
Wed, November 25, 2020

Dinosaur-era bird with scythe-like beak sheds light on avian diversity

Artist's reconstruction of bird Falcatakely forsterae

By Will Dunham

WASHINGTON (Reuters) - A delicate but exquisitely preserved skull of a crow-sized bird with a scythe-like beak that inhabited Madagascar 68 million years ago is showing scientists that they have a lot of learn about avian diversity during the age of dinosaurs.

Scientists on Wednesday said the bird, called Falcatakely forsterae, possessed a face unlike any other known bird from the age of dinosaurs - the Mesozoic Era - not only because of the beak shape but because of its underlying anatomy.

Its beak looked superficially like that of a small toucan though the two species are not closely related. While modern birds exhibit a great variety of beak shapes - from the sword-billed hummingbird to the rhinoceros hornbill - little such diversity had been discovered among Mesozoic birds.

Falcatakely's 3.5-inch (9-cm) skull remains partially embedded in rock because the scientists did not want to risk harming it. Instead they analyzed it using sophisticated scanning and digital reconstruction. Only its skull was found.

"Amazing, small, delicate, fragile, challenging to study - all at the same time," said Ohio University anatomy professor Patrick O'Connor, lead author of the research published in the journal Nature.

"Bird fossils are particularly rare in part because they have such delicate skeletons. Hollow bones aren't great at surviving the fossilization process," added paleontologist and study co-author Alan Turner of Stony Brook University in New York.

"Because of this, we need to be aware that we are probably under-sampling the Mesozoic diversity of birds. A newly discovered species like Falcatakely provides a taste of the tantalizing possibility of a greater diversity of form waiting to be discovered," Turner said.

Birds evolved from small feathered dinosaurs about 150 million years ago. Early birds retained many ancestral features including teeth. The Falcatakely fossil has a single conical tooth in the front part of the upper jaw. Falcatakely probably had a small number of teeth in life.

It belonged to an avian group, enantiornithines, that did not survive the mass extinction event 66 million years ago, ending the Cretaceous Period.

"Unlike the earliest birds such as Archaeopteryx, which in many ways still looked dinosaurian with their long tails and unspecialized snouts, enantiornithines like Falcatakely would have looked relatively modern," Turner said.

It was in the underlying skeletal structure where its differences were more apparent, O'Connor added, with more similarities to dinosaurs like Velociraptor than modern birds.

(Reporting by Will Dunham; editing by Jonathan Oatis)

Climate ‘apocalypse’ fears stopping people having children – study

Survey of 600 people finds some parents regret having offspring for same reason

NOT EVERYONE WANTS KIDS

Born into a dying world? Children at a climate protest in Brussels, Belgium. Photograph: Isopix/Rex/Shutterstock


Damian Carrington Environment editor
THE GUARDIAN Fri 27 Nov 2020 

People worried about the climate crisis are deciding not to have children because of fears that their offspring would have to struggle through a climate apocalypse, according to the first academic study of the issue.

The researchers surveyed 600 people aged 27 to 45 who were already factoring climate concerns into their reproductive choices and found 96% were very or extremely concerned about the wellbeing of their potential future children in a climate-changed world. One 27-year-old woman said: “I feel like I can’t in good conscience bring a child into this world and force them to try and survive what may be apocalyptic conditions.”

These views were based on very pessimistic assessments of the impact of global heating on the world, the researchers said. One respondent, for example, said it would “rival world war one in its sheer terror”. The research also found that some people who were already parents expressed regret over having their children.

Having a child also potentially means that person going on to produce a lifetime of carbon emissions that contribute to the climate emergency, but only 60% of those surveyed were very concerned about this carbon footprint.

“The fears about the carbon footprint of having kids tended to be abstract and dry,” said Matthew Schneider-Mayerson, of Yale-NUS College in Singapore, who led the study. “But the fears about the lives of existing or potential children were really deep and emotional. It was often heartbreaking to pore through the responses – a lot of people really poured their hearts out.”

The number of people factoring climate change into their reproductive plans was likely to grow, Schneider-Mayerson said, as the impacts of global heating became more obvious. “To address this, we really need to act immediately to address the root cause, which is climate change itself,” he said.

The study, published in the journal Climatic Change, found no statistically significant difference between the views of women and men, though women made up three-quarters of respondents. A 31-year-old woman said: “Climate change is the sole factor for me in deciding not to have biological children. I don’t want to birth children into a dying world [though] I dearly want to be a mother.”

The researchers found that 6% of parents confessed to feeling some remorse about having children. A 40-year-old mother said: “I regret having my kids because I am terrified that they will be facing the end of the world due to climate change.”

Schneider-Mayerson said: “I was surprised – for parents, this is an extremely difficult statement to make.”

BirthStrikers: meet the women who refuse to have children until climate change ends


The study is the first peer-reviewed academic study of the issue and analysed a large group of concerned people. The survey was done anonymously so people could express themselves freely.

“It is an unprecedented window into the way that [some people] are thinking and feeling about what many consider to be the most important decision in their lives,” said Schneider-Mayerson.

Other findings were that younger people were more concerned about the climate impacts their children would experience than older respondents, and that adoption was seen as a potential alternative to having biological children.

The study indicated that climate-related fears for their children’s lives were rooted in a deeply pessimistic view of the future. Of the 400 respondents who offered a vision of the future, 92.3% were negative, 5.6% were mixed or neutral, and just 0.6% were positive.

One 42-year-old father wrote that the world in 2050 would be “a hot-house hell, with wars over limited resources, collapsing civilisation, failing agriculture, rising seas, melting glaciers, starvation, droughts, floods, mudslides and widespread devastation.” Schneider-Mayerson said he thought the pessimistic views held were all within the range of possibilities, if not necessarily the most likely outcome.

However, he said further research was needed on a more diverse group of people and in other parts of the world. The self-selecting group in the study all lived in the US and were largely white, more highly educated and liberal.

Previously, opinion polls of the general public indicated people were connecting the climate crisis and reproduction, with one poll in 2020 finding that among 18- to 44-year-old US citizens without children, 14% cited climate change as a “major reason” for not having children. In 2019, scores of women in the UK said they were starting a “birth strike” until the climate crisis was resolved.


A-Z of climate anxiety: how to avoid meltdown

Seth Wynes, of Concordia University in Canada, whose 2017 study found having one less child was the greatest impact individuals can have in fighting climate change, said the researchers had properly stressed that the sample was not representative of all Americans. But he said the distress over the decision to have children made sense. “Climate change is already affecting our world in frightening ways and so it’s certainly reasonable to account for the climate crisis when thinking about the future of one’s family.

“As climate change continues to worsen, it is important to understand how perceptions of the future can change the way everyday people plan their lives,” Wynes said. “This study is an initial step in growing that understanding.”

There is also growing evidence of climate anxiety affecting mental health and earlier in 2020 more than 1,000 clinical psychologists signed an open letter warning of “acute trauma on a global scale”. Last week, a survey revealed that more than half of child and adolescent psychiatrists in England were seeing patients distressed about the state of the environment.

Platypuses Lost 22% of Their Habitat Over Last 30 Years
The startling finding comes in a report that documents the iconic Australian animal’s decline and recommends increased legal protections

A new report finds platypus numbers are declining in Australia, prompting the authors of the report to call for the species to be listed as endangered. 

(Stuart Cohen)

By Alex Fox
SMITHSONIANMAG.COM
NOVEMBER 25, 2020

One of Australia’s most adored animal oddities is under threat, reports Lisa Cox for the Guardian. A new report estimates that the platypus has disappeared from at least 22 percent of its former habitat over the past three decades, and recommends the duck-billed, egg-laying mammal be added to the country’s list of threatened species. The loss is equivalent to platypuses disappearing from an area larger than the entire state of Washington.

This formal assessment, a collaboration between researchers with the University of New South Wales, the Australian Conservation Foundation, the World Wildlife Foundation and the Humane Society, calls for Australia to classify the species as nationally threatened. The assessment echoes troubling findings reported earlier this year, which projected that the platypus population could decline between 47 and 66 percent by 2070.

Internationally, platypuses are listed as “near threatened” by the International Union for Conservation of Nature’s (IUCN). The new report recommends that the severity of the species’ listing be increased to “vulnerable” to respond to evidence of past and projected future declines in the platypus population.

Only found in Australia, platypuses inhabit rivers and streams on the country’s eastern seaboard from Queensland to Victoria and across much of Tasmania. Despite being warm blooded, furry and nursing their young with milk, the platypus lays eggs, making it—along with the two types of echidna—one of just three known species of monotreme on Earth. Combined with their appearance, these traits would be plenty to make the platypus a truly singular animal, but the details of their physiology only make them stranger and more fascinating.

For starters, their signature duck-shaped bill is fleshy rather than hard like a bird’s and can detect electromagnetic fields underwater, which helps the platypus find food in murky waters. Males have a venomous spur on their hind legs, and females lactate by sweating on their tummies. Recent research has even revealed that they glow turquoise under ultraviolet light.

But this uniquely Australian creature’s riverine habitat is being threatened by climate change, in the form of more severe and more frequent droughts, as well as by water diversion and extraction. Other threats mentioned by the report include land clearing, pollution and predation by feral dogs and foxes, reports Michael Slezak for Australia’s ABC News.


"Protecting the platypus and the rivers it relies on must be a national priority for one of the world's most iconic animals," says Richard Kingsford, an ecologist at the University of New South Wales and the report’s lead author, in a statement. "There is a real concern that platypus populations will disappear from some of our rivers without returning, if rivers keep degrading with droughts and dams."

The declines quantified by the report were most severe in New South Wales, which saw a 32 percent drop in platypus observations since 1990, followed by Queensland with a 27 percent decline and Victoria decreasing by 7 percent, per a statement. Some urban areas were even worse. In some places near Melbourne, for example, the decline in observations was as high as 65 percent.

“We have a national and international responsibility to look after this unique animal and the signs are not good” says Kingsford in the statement. "Platypus are declining and we need to do something about threats to the species before it is too late."


Alex Fox is a freelance science journalist based in Washington, D.C. He has written for Science, Nature, Science News, the San Jose Mercury News, and Mongabay. You can find him at Alexfoxscience.com.Read more from this author | Follow @Alex_M_Fox

What was the Boston Tea Party and why did it happen?

What was the Boston Tea Party and why did it happen? The events of 16 December 1773 had global origins, suggests Benjamin Carp, and have since inspired acts of non-violent civil disobedience in nations as diverse as Lebanon and China. Here's your guide to the pivotal moment in American history and its far-reaching global legacy




November 25, 2020

What happened during the Boston Tea Party?

About a hundred men boarded three ships in Boston harbour on the evening of 16 December 1773. No one knows for sure who they were, or exactly how many of them were there. They had wrapped blankets around their shoulders, and they had slathered paint and soot on their faces. A newspaper report called them “resolute men (dressed like Mohawks or Indians)”. In two or three hours, they hoisted 340 chests above decks, chopped them open with hatchets, and emptied their contents over the rails. Since the tide was out, you could see huge clumps of the stuff piling up alongside the ships.


This was in fact 46 tonnes of tea worth more than £9,659. 
At the time, a tonne of tea cost about the same as a two-storey house. The event became a pivotal moment in American history, leading to the overthrow of the British imperial government, an eight-year civil war, and American independence.

Why does the United States of America celebrate Independence Day on 4 July?

Why did the Boston Tea Party happen?

The history of the Boston Tea Party belongs not just to the United States of America, but to the world. The Tea Party originated with a Chinese commodity, a British financial crisis, imperialism in India, and American consumption habits. It resounded in a world of Afro-Caribbean slavery, Native American disguises, and widespread tyranny and oppression. And for over 200 years since, the Boston Tea Party has inspired political movements of all stripes, well beyond America’s shores.

The history of the Boston Tea Party belongs not just to the United States of America, but to the world

To understand why tea had become so controversial in Boston, we would have to look at the history of how this plant had come to be embraced by Britons all over the world. Camellia sinensis grew among the foothills of the high mountains that separated China from the Indian subcontinent. For over a thousand years, it was the Chinese who had popularised and marketed the drink. Chinese merchants traded tea to Japanese ships, Mongol horsemen, and Persian caravans. Few Europeans had tasted tea before 1680. Yet by the 18th century, trading firms like the English East India Company were regularly negotiating with Cantonese hongs (merchants) and hoppos (port supervisors) to bring tea back to the west. As the tea trade grew, the price dropped.

Tea for two : A fashionable gentleman takes morning tea with a lady in her boudoir, while a maidservant looks on, in an 18th-century engraving. (Wellcome Collection)

The bitter taste of tea might have been unpalatable to Europeans, had it not been for the trade in another commodity – sugar. The 17th century had seen the cultivation of sugarcane in the West Indies yield an enormously profitable crop. To raise cane and process sugar, West Indian planters relied on the labour of African slaves. Britons did not organise an objection to slavery, sugar and tea until the end of the 18th century. In the meantime, tea and sugar went hand in hand.

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Tea made its way to American ports like Boston, Massachusetts, and even into the outermost reaches of the American frontier. Some of it was legally bought, and the rest was smuggled to avoid British duties. It soon became the drink of respectable households all over the British empire, although it also pained critics who worried about its corrupting effects. They lamented that tea led to vanity and pride, it encouraged women to gather and gossip, and it threatened to undermine 
the nation. Nevertheless, the British government, reliant 
on the revenues from global trade, did nothing to stand in the way of tea drinkers. Indeed, in 1767, parliament passed a Revenue Act that collected a duty on all tea shipped to the American colonies.

Timeline: From the Boston Tea Party to American Independence

16 December 1773 Protesters dump 340 crates of the East India Company’s tea into Boston harbour

January 1774 London learns of the destruction of the tea, and of other American protests

March 1774 Parliament passes the first of the so-called Coerciver Acts, the Boston Port Act, which closes the port of Boston until the town makes restitution for the tea

May 1774 Parliament passes two more laws for restoring order in Massachusetts. 
These laws limit town meetings, 
put the provincial council under royal appointments, and allow British civil officers accused of capital crimes to move their trials to other jurisdictions

1 June 1774 The Boston Port Act takes effect, and Governor Thomas Hutchinson departs for England, never to return. His replacement is General Thomas Gage, 
a military commander

Summer 1774 Massachusetts protesters resist 
the Coercive Acts by disrupting local courts and forcing councillors to resign their seats

September to October 1774 The First Continental Congress meets, declares opposition to the Coercive Acts, and calls for boycotts of British goods and an embargo on exports to Great Britain

February 1775 Parliament declares Massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion. Governor Gage will later receive orders to enforce the Coercive Acts and suppress the uprising

19 April 1775 British regular troops and Massachusetts militiamen exchange fire at Lexington and Concord. In response, armed New Englanders surround the British fortifications at Boston

March 1776 American forces take Dorchester Heights and the British evacuate Boston

July 1776 The Continental Congress adopts the Declaration of Independence of the United States

These were years when Great Britain, still groaning under the debts incurred during the Seven Years’ War (1756–63), began tightening the reins on its imperial possessions all over the globe. In America, this meant restrictions on westward expansion, stronger enforcement of customs regulations, and new taxes. In India, this meant increased control over the East India Company.

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The employees of the East India Company were not just traders in tea and textiles. Since the reign of Elizabeth I, the company had also been fortifying, making allies, and fighting rivals in the lands east of the Cape of Good Hope. It had a monopoly on the eastern trade, and its role took an imperial turn in the 1750s. Eight years after Robert Clive defeated the Nawab of Bengal at the battle of Plassey in 1757, he arranged to have the company assume the civil administration (and tax collection) in Bengal.

General clamour

Many Britons had high hopes for this new source of revenue but then, in the autumn of 1769, Indian affairs took a horrific turn. A famine struck Bengal, killing at least 1.2 million people – this was equivalent to half the population of the 13 American colonies at the time. A horrified British public blamed the East India Company for the disaster. “The oppressions of India,” wrote Horace Walpole, “under the rapine and cruelties of the servants of the company, had now reached England, and created general clamour here.”

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The East India Company’s troubles multiplied. In 1772, manipulations of its stock were blamed for a series of bank failures that sent a shockwave of bankruptcies across the globe. The company was losing money on its military ventures in India. The Bank of England refused to keep lending it money, and it owed hundreds of thousands of pounds in back taxes. What’s more, competition from smugglers and excessive imports led the company to amass 17.5 million pounds of tea in its warehouses – more than the English nation drank in a year.

This 18th-century watercolour shows workers crushing tea in wooden crates in China, where the drink was first marketed and popularised. (Credit: V&A)

To rescue the company (and gain greater control over it), parliament passed a series of laws in 1773, including the Tea Act. This law levied no new taxes on Americans, but it allowed the company to ship its tea directly to America for the first time. The legislation, Americans feared, would have three effects. First, it granted a monopoly company special privileges in America, cutting out American merchants (except a few hand-picked consignees). Second, it encouraged further payment of a tax that the Americans had been decrying for six years. Third, the revenue from the tax was used to pay the salaries of certain civil officials (including the Massachusetts governor), leaving them unaccountable to the people.

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Americans were vitriolic in their response, and their pamphlets resounded in global language. “Hampden”, a New York writer, warned that the East India Company was “lost to all the Feelings of Humanity” as they “monopolised the absolute Necessaries of Life in India, at a Time of apprehended Scarcity”. The new tea trade, he warned, would 
“support the Tyranny of the [Company] in the East, enslave the West, and prepare us fit Victims for the Exercise of that horrid Inhumanity they have… practised, in the Face of the Sun, on the helpless Asiaticks”. John Dickinson, a Pennsylvania lawyer who gained fame as a protestor against British taxes, similarly attacked the East India Company. “Their Conduct in Asia, for some Years past, has given ample Proof, how little 
they regard the Laws of Nations, the Rights, Liberties, or 
Lives of Men.”

Having drained Bengal of its wealth, he wrote, they now “cast their Eyes on America, as a new Theatre, wheron to exercise their Talents of Rapine, Oppression and Cruelty. The Monopoly of Tea, is, I dare say, but a small Part of the Plan they have formed to strip us of our Property. But thank GOD, we are not Sea Poys, or Marattas, but British Subjects, who are born to Liberty, who know its Worth, and who prize it high.”

Bostonians responded to these warnings. Under pressure from the Sons of Liberty (a group of American patriots) in New York and Philadelphia, they threatened Boston’s consignees until they fled the town. When the first of the tea ships arrived on 28 November 1773, the Bostonians demanded that the cargo be returned to London without unloading. The owner, a Quaker merchant named Francis Rotch, protested that he couldn’t do this, by law, and so a stalemate of almost three weeks ensued. Upon the stroke of midnight on 17 December, the British customs service would have the power to step in, seize the tea, and sell it at auction.

They were beginning to think of themselves as Americans rather than British subjects, as free men throwing off the shackles of empire

Therefore, the evening before, on 16 December, the Bostonians got their Indian disguises ready. These were crude costumes, not meant to conceal so much as warn the community not to reveal the perpetrators’ identities. Yet the choice of a Native American disguise was still significant. Americans were often portrayed as American Indians in British cartoons, and the colonists were often lumped in with the indigenous population and derided as savages. What better way to blunt the sting of this epithet than to assume an Indian disguise?

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The Bostonians may have been inspired by a New York City newspaper piece in which “The MOHAWKS” wrote that they were “determined not to be enslaved, by any power on earth”, and promised “an unwelcome visit” to anyone who should 
land tea on American shores. The tea destroyers of Boston selected a costume that situated them on the other side of the Atlantic ocean from the king and parliament. They were beginning to think of themselves as Americans rather than British subjects, as free men throwing off the shackles of empire.
Who were the key players in the Boston Tea Party?

Although most of the tea destroyers were born in Massachusetts, some had more far-flung origins. James Swan, an anti-slavery pamphleteer, was born in Fifeshire, Scotland. Nicholas Campbell hailed from the island of Malta. John Peters had come to America from Lisbon. Although there were wealthy merchants and professionals among the destroyers, the bulk of them were craftsmen who worked with their hands, which enabled them to haul the chests of tea to the decks in a short time. Mostly young men between the ages of 18 and 29, they were thrilled to make a bold statement to the world.

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And the world responded. Prints of the Boston Tea Party appeared in France and Germany. In Edinburgh, the philosopher Adam Smith shook his head disapprovingly at the “strange absurdity” of the East India Company’s sovereignty in India. He stitched his ideas together into a foundational theory of free market capitalism in 1776. A Persian historian in Calcutta would write in the 1780s that the British-American conflict “arose from this event: the king of the English maintained these five or six years past, a contest with the people of America (a word that signifies a new world), on account of the [East India] Company’s concerns.” Many years later, activists from China to South Africa to Lebanon would explain their actions by comparing them to the Tea Party. As a symbol of anti-colonial nationalism, non-violent civil disobedience, or costumed political spectacle, the Tea Party was irresistible.

In 1773, the diplomat Sir George Macartney waxed poetic about Great Britain, “this vast empire, on which the sun never sets, and whose bounds nature has not yet ascertained”. Bostonians tested those bounds later that year. The Boston Tea Party is often spun as the opening act in the origin story of the United States. 
Yet it is better understood as a bright conflagration on the horizon of a big world – a fire that still burns brightly.
The global legacy of the Boston Tea Party

More than two centuries after it took place, campaigners around the world are still inspired 
by the Boston Tea Party as a model of peaceful protest…

1
Temperance movement

During the 19th century, Americans periodically drew upon the Boston Tea Party as a precedent for democratic protests: labour unions, the Mashpee tribe of Native Americans, women’s suffragists, and both foes and defenders of the anti-slavery movement. As a lawyer in 1854, the future president Abraham Lincoln defended nine women who had destroyed an Illinois saloon in the name of the temperance movement. He argued that the Boston Tea Party was a worthy model for their actions.

American suffragettes picket a building bearing the name of the National Woman’s Party, c1900. (Getty images)
2
Mahatma Gandhi

After the British government in South Africa mandated that resident Indians had to be registered and fingerprinted under the Asiatic Registration Act of 1907, Mahatma Gandhi adopted the practice of satyagraha, or non-violent protest. He led the Indian community in the burning of registration cards at mass meetings in August 1908. Gandhi later wrote that a British newspaper correspondent had compared the protest to the Boston Tea Party.

3
US tax protestors

Today the Boston Tea Party is proving a rallying point for conservative Americans. American tax protesters have often invoked the Tea Party as their inspiration since the 1970s. The libertarian presidential candidate Ron Paul held a campaign fundraiser on 16 December 2007. In February 2009, a business news broadcaster called for a “tea party” to protest against the US government’s plan to help refinance home mortgages. With the help of national organisations and media attention, the movement stitched together local groups of protestors. The tea partiers have been calling for less federal regulation and lower taxes.

4
Republic of China (Taiwan)

In late 1923, during the struggle for power in China between the Kuomintang (Chinese Nationalist Party) and the Communist Party of China, Sun Yat-Sen, head of the Kuomintang, threatened to seize customs revenues from Guangzhou. The United States and other western nations sent warships to intervene. On 19 December (three days after the 150th anniversary of the Boston Tea Party), Sun wrote: “We must stop that money from going to Peking to buy arms to kill us, just as your forefathers stopped taxation going to the English coffers by throwing English tea into Boston Harbor.”

5
African-American civil rights


In his 1963 ‘Letter from a Birmingham Jail,’ the Reverend Martin Luther King Jr called for a “nonviolent direct action program” in Birmingham, Alabama. Discussing his historical inspiration, he wrote: “In our own nation, the Boston Tea Party represented a massive act of civil disobedience.” Three years later, Robert F Williams would recall the Tea Party to rally more violent action on behalf of African-American civil rights: “Burn, baby, burn.”

Benjamin L Carp is associate professor of history, Tufts University, Massachusetts. 
His book Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America (Yale University Press) is out now.

Books: Defiance of the Patriots: The Boston Tea Party and the Making of America 
by Benjamin L Carp (Yale, 2010); The Corporation that Changed the World: How the East India Company Shaped the Modern Multinational 
by Nick Robins (Pluto, 2006); The Shoemaker and the Tea Party: Memory and the American Revolution 
by Alfred F Young (Beacon, 1999)


This article was first published in the Christmas 2010 issue of BBC History Magazine

Thanksgiving and the Myth of Native American "Savages"

Prominent scientists exaggerate the violence of Native Americans, whom European invaders ravaged.

By John Horgan on November 21, 2016  SCIENTIFIC AMERICA

Native Americans, accused of Hobbesian savagery by modern scientists, treated Europeans kindly in early encounters. This painting shows the legendary Thanksgiving feast between Pilgrims and the Wampanoag, who helped the newcomers survive and were eventually driven from their land.  Credit: Jean Leon Gerome Ferris 1863-1930, U.S. Library of Congress

Note: This post first appeared on November 21, 2016. It's still relevant, of course.

The approach of Thanksgiving, that quintessential American holiday, has me brooding once again over scientists’ slanderous portrayals of Native Americans as bellicose brutes.

When I was in grade school, my classmates and I wore paper Indian headdresses and Pilgrim hats and reenacted the “first Thanksgiving,” in which supposedly friendly Native Americans joined Pilgrims for a fall feast of turkey, venison, squash and corn. This episode seemed to support the view—often (apparently erroneously) attributed to the 18th-century philosopher Jean-Jacques Rousseau—of Native Americans and other pre-state people as peaceful, “noble savages.”

Prominent scientists now deride depictions of pre-state people as peaceful. “Contra leftist anthropologists who celebrate the noble savage,” psychologist Steven Pinker wrote in 2007, “quantitative body counts—such as the proportion of prehistoric skeletons with ax marks and embedded arrowheads or the proportion of men in a contemporary foraging tribe who die at the hands of other men—suggest that pre-state societies were far more violent than our own.” According to Pinker, the 17th-century philosopher Thomas Hobbes “got it right” when he called pre-state life a “war of all against all.”

Pinker expanded on this claim in his 2011 book The Better Angels of Our Nature. The Hobbesian thesis has been advanced in other influential books, notably War Before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage, by anthropologist Lawrence Keeley; Constant Battles: The Myth of the Peaceful, Noble Savage, by archaeologist Steven LeBlanc; War in Human Civilization, by political scientist Azar Gat; The Social Conquest of Earth, by biologist Edward Wilson; and The World Until Yesterday, by geographer Jared Diamond.

Referring specifically to the pre-Colombian New World, Keeley asserted, “The dogs of war were seldom on a leash.” Popular culture has amplified these scientific claims. In the 2007 HBO docudrama Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Chief Sitting Bull complains to a U.S. Army colonel about whites’ violent treatment of the Indians. The colonel retorts, “You were killing each other for hundreds of moons before the first white stepped foot on this continent.”

Yes, Native Americans waged war before Europeans showed up. The evidence is especially strong in the American Southwest, where archaeologists have found numerous skeletons with projectile points embedded in them and other marks of violence; war seems to have surged during periods of drought. But as I have asserted in my book The End of War and on this site, Pinker and other Hobbesians have exaggerated warfare among early humans. These scientists have replaced the myth of the noble savage with the myth of the savage savage.

In two momentous early encounters, Native Americans greeted Europeans with kindness. Here is how Christopher Columbus described the Arawak, tribal people living in the Bahamas when he landed there in 1492: “They…brought us parrots and balls of cotton and spears and many other things, which they exchanged for the glass beads and hawks’ bells. They willingly traded everything they owned…. They do not bear arms, and do not know them, for I showed them a sword, they took it by the edge and cut themselves out of ignorance…. With 50 men we could subjugate them all and make them do whatever we want.”

How that passage—which I found in historian Howard Zinn's 1980 classic A People’s History of the United States—captures the whole sordid history of colonialism! Columbus was as good as his word. Within decades the Spaniards had slaughtered almost all the Arawaks and other natives of the New Indies and enslaved the few survivors. “The cruel policy initiated by Columbus and pursued by his successors resulted in complete genocide,” wrote the historian Samuel Morison (who admired Columbus).

A similar pattern unfolded in New England in the early 17th century. After the Pilgrims arrived in Plymouth in 1620 on the Mayflower, they almost starved to death. Members of a local tribe, the Wampanoag, helped the newcomers, showing them how to plant corn and other local foods. In the fall of 1621 the Pilgrims celebrated their first successful harvest with a three-day feast with the Wampanoag. The event my classmates and I reenacted in grade school really happened!

The friendliness of the Wampanoag was extraordinary, because they had recently been ravaged by diseases caught from previous European explorers. Europeans had also killed, kidnapped and enslaved Native Americans in the region. The Plymouth settlers, during their desperate first year, had even stolen grain and other goods from the Wampanoag, according to Wikipedia’s entry on Plymouth Colony.

The good vibes of that 1621 feast soon dissipated. As more English settlers arrived in New England, they seized more and more land from the Wampanoag and other tribes, who eventually resisted with violence—in vain. We all know how this story ended. “The Indian population of 10 million that lived north of Mexico when Columbus came would ultimately be reduced to less than a million,” Zinn wrote.

In “Indians, Slaves, and Mass Murder: The Hidden History,” a recent essay in The New York Review of Books, anthropologist Peter Nabokov notes that colonizers reduced California’s native population from 350,000 at first contact to under 17,000 by 1900. State laws allowed and even encouraged the slaughter of Native Americans. “Extermination,” Nabokov comments, was “considered no great tragedy for an entire people who were uniformly and irredeemably defined as savage and inhuman.”

Centuries earlier, the Arawak and Wampanoag were kind to us—and by us I mean white people of European descent. We showed our thanks by sickening, subjugating and slaughtering them and other indigenous people. And we have the gall to call them more savage than us.

Please ponder this dark irony as you celebrate Thanksgiving.

Addendum: U.S. government maltreatment of Native Americans continues. A United Nations human-rights official accuses “law enforcement officials, private security firms and the North Dakota National Guard” of using “excessive force” against Native Americans and others protesting an oil pipeline that “runs through land sacred to indigenous people.”

The views expressed are those of the author(s) and are not necessarily those of Scientific American.

*Self-plagiarism alert: This is an updated version of a column posted on previous Thanksgivings.

ABOUT THE AUTHOR(S)

John Horgan directs the Center for Science Writings at the Stevens Institute of Technology. His books include The End of Science, The End of War and Mind-Body Problems, available for free at mindbodyproblems.com. For many years, he wrote the immensely popular blog Cross Check for Scientific American.

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Further Reading:

Was Civilization the Cure for Primordial Human Violence?

10,000-Year-Old Massacre Does Not Bolster Claim That War Is Innate.

Quitting the hominid fight club: The evidence is flimsy for innate chimpanzee–let alone human–warfare.

New Study of Foragers Undermines Claim That War Has Deep Evolutionary Roots.

New Study of Prehistoric Skeletons Undermines Claim that War Has Deep Evolutionary Roots.

Survey of Earliest Human Settlements Undermines Claim That War Has Deep Evolutionary Roots.

Chimp Violence Fails to Support Deep-Roots Theory of War.

Margaret Mead’s War Theory Kicks Butt of Neo-Darwinian and Malthusian Models.

RIP Military Historian John Keegan, Who Saw War As Product of Culture Rather than Biology.

War Scholar Critiques New Study of Roots of Violence

War Is Our Most Urgent Problem; Let's Solve It.