It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Sunday, June 02, 2024
Tropical forest resilience to seasonal drought linked to nutrient availability
International research team carry out Africa’s first large-scale nutrient addition experiment with nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
Tropical forests are highly productive ecosystems accounting for nearly half of the global forest carbon sink. If tropical forests can no longer remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the effects of climate change may become even more severe. In recent times, these forests have been found to be increasingly limited in nutrients, which may affect their resilience to seasonal droughts and the rate at which they can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. To investigate this, an international research team led by the University of Göttingen established Africa’s first largescale nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium addition experiment in the Budongo Forest of Uganda. Their research showed that increasing the availability of certain nutrients can potentially sustain the productivity of these forests even under intense drought conditions – conditions already prevalent in most parts of the world. The results were published in the journal Nature Geoscience.
The researchers investigated how nutrients control the production of leaf litter onto the forest floor. Plant leaves actively remove human-produced carbon dioxide from the atmosphere when they photosynthesise to make their own food. This process leads to carbon accumulation in the plant’s wood or in the leaves themselves. However, under drought conditions most trees respond by shedding their leaves, which reduces the rate of carbon removal from the atmosphere. Eventually, the whole plant dies if the drought persists for a prolonged period. However, the researchers found in particular that for trees which were deficient in potassium, increasing the availability of this nutrient during the drier period delays the timing when most leaves are lost by four weeks. To overcome the low potassium levels, the trees had reallocated the potassium from their dying leaves to the rest of the plant before shedding them. Lead author Dr Raphael Manu from the University of Göttingen explains “that low potassium and phosphorus availability can make this vital tropical forest ecosystem more vulnerable to drought and a less effective carbon sink”.
In dry conditions, potassium helps plants to effectively regulate the minute pores in their epidermis, and phosphorus plays an important role in conserving water within the plant. This explains why these two nutrients are so important when conditions become drier in the future. Professor Edzo Veldkamp from the University of Göttingen adds, “This is the first time that we have experimentally linked soil nutrient availability to the seasonal drought response of tropical forests.”
The research was part of the project “Nutrient limitation in a Ugandan tropical forest (RELIANCE)”, funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
Original publication: Raphael Manu et al. Response of tropical forest productivity to seasonal drought mediated by potassium and phosphorus availability. Nature Geoscience 2024. Doi: 10.1038/s41561-024-01448-8
Litter collectors for monitoring litterfall in the Budongo Forest Experiment
Tropical forests are highly productive ecosystems accounting for nearly half of the global forest carbon sink. If tropical forests can no longer remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the effects of climate change may become even more severe. In recent times, these forests have been found to be increasingly limited in nutrients, which may affect their resilience to seasonal droughts and the rate at which they can remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. To investigate this, an international research team led by the University of Göttingen established Africa’s first largescale nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium addition experiment in the Budongo Forest of Uganda. Their research showed that increasing the availability of certain nutrients can potentially sustain the productivity of these forests even under intense drought conditions – conditions already prevalent in most parts of the world. The results were published in the journal Nature Geoscience.
The researchers investigated how nutrients control the production of leaf litter onto the forest floor. Plant leaves actively remove human-produced carbon dioxide from the atmosphere when they photosynthesise to make their own food. This process leads to carbon accumulation in the plant’s wood or in the leaves themselves. However, under drought conditions most trees respond by shedding their leaves, which reduces the rate of carbon removal from the atmosphere. Eventually, the whole plant dies if the drought persists for a prolonged period. However, the researchers found in particular that for trees which were deficient in potassium, increasing the availability of this nutrient during the drier period delays the timing when most leaves are lost by four weeks. To overcome the low potassium levels, the trees had reallocated the potassium from their dying leaves to the rest of the plant before shedding them. Lead author Dr Raphael Manu from the University of Göttingen explains “that low potassium and phosphorus availability can make this vital tropical forest ecosystem more vulnerable to drought and a less effective carbon sink”.
In dry conditions, potassium helps plants to effectively regulate the minute pores in their epidermis, and phosphorus plays an important role in conserving water within the plant. This explains why these two nutrients are so important when conditions become drier in the future. Professor Edzo Veldkamp from the University of Göttingen adds, “This is the first time that we have experimentally linked soil nutrient availability to the seasonal drought response of tropical forests.”
The research was part of the project “Nutrient limitation in a Ugandan tropical forest (RELIANCE)”, funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
Original publication: Raphael Manu et al. Response of tropical forest productivity to seasonal drought mediated by potassium and phosphorus availability. Nature Geoscience 2024. Doi: 10.1038/s41561-024-01448-8
As our planet warms, many species are shifting to different locations as their historical habitats become inhospitable. Trees are no exception – many species’ normal ranges are no longer conducive to their health, but their shift to new areas that could better sustain them has been lagging behind those of other plants and animals. Now, scientists show that the reason for this lag might be found belowground. A study published in PNAS on May X, shows that trees, especially those in the far north, may be relocating to soils that don’t have the fungal life to support them.
Most plants form belowground partnerships with mycorrhizal fungi, microscopic, filamentous fungi that grow in the soil and connect with plant roots to supply plants with critical nutrients in exchange for carbon. Most large coniferous trees in northern latitudes form relationships with a kind of mycorrhizal fungi called ectomycorrhizal fungi.
“As we examined the future for these symbiotic relationships, we found that 35% of partnerships between trees and fungi that interact with the tree roots would be negatively impacted by climate change,” says lead author Michael Van Nuland, a fungal ecologist at the Society for the Protection of Underground Networks (SPUN).
The trees most at risk of this climate mismatch in North America are those in the pine family, find the authors. Areas of particular concern are the edges of species ranges where trees often face the harshest conditions. Here, the authors discovered that trees with higher survival rate in these locations have more diverse mycorrhizal fungi, a sign that these symbioses may be critical for helping trees withstand the effects of climate change.
“Ectomycorrhizal fungi have a different relationship to climate than ectomycorrhizal trees do,” says co-author Clara Qin, a data scientist at SPUN. “We are finding evidence that the trees have to answer for these differences.”
The study sheds light on how climate change might be affecting symbioses. “While we expect climate-driven migrations to be limited by abiotic factors like the availability of space at higher latitudes and elevations, we don't usually account for biotic limitations like the availability of symbiotic partners,” says Qin.
“It’s absolutely vital that we continue to work to understand how climate change is affecting mycorrhizal symbioses,” says Van Nuland. “These relationships underpin all life on Earth – it’s critical that we understand and protect them.”
A giant pine tree growing on Corsica, where climate change effects are extreme
CREDIT
SPUN/Quentin van den Bossche
Cortinarius spp., a mycorrhizal mushroom.
CREDIT
SPUN/Mateo Barrenengoa
A forest with ectomycorrhizal trees in the Apennine Mountains, Italy
This research was funded by a National Science Foundation grant awarded to Kai Zhu and Kabir Peay (NSF Awards 1926438, 2244711)
PNAS, Van Nuland et al., “Climate mismatches with ectomycorrhizal fungi contribute to migration lag in North American tree range shifts”
The Society for the Protection of Underground Networks (SPUN) is a scientific research organization with a mission to map and preserve Earth’s fungal networks. In collaboration with researchers and local communities, SPUN is accelerating efforts to protect the underground ecosystems largely absent from conservation and climate agendas. To learn more about SPUN, visit:https://spun.earth/.
New study found that Eucalyptus trees, widely planted in Israel’s Western Negev, have a significant allelopathic effect, reducing herbaceous plant biomass and flowering density of red anemones, particularly in unshaded areas. These findings suggest that while Eucalyptus trees provide certain benefits such as shading for tourists and nectar for bees, their negative impact on local plant communities and ecosystem services necessitates cautious planting, particularly in tourist areas and regions with rare species. The Eucalyptus species showed large differences in their effect, thus, prioritizing Eucalyptus species with minimal adverse effects is recommended for future reforestation efforts.
The Western Negev region of Israel, characterized by its extensive Eucalyptus plantations, has been the subject of ongoing debate due to Eucalypti being an alien species. Eucalyptus is famous for allelopathy - the chemical inhibition of one plant species by another - which can significantly impact local vegetation. This study, conducted in the Be’eri forest and near Kibbutz Re’im, focused on understanding these effects on herbaceous plant communities that are crucial for ecosystem services, such as grazing and cultural significance.
New study by Yuval Neumann and Dr. Niv DeMalach from the Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment at the Hebrew University examined the impact of three Eucalyptus species: E. camaldulensis, E. loxophleba, and E. torquata. Key findings include:
Herbaceous Biomass Reduction Under the Eucalypti canopy a significant reduction in herbaceous biomass was observed, even when controlling for shading.
Flowering Density of Red Anemones: A negative impact on the flowering density of red anemones (A. coronaria) was observed.
Ecosystem Services: Eucalypti provide numerous ecosystem service, such as s security-forestation (hiding settlements), as nectar providers, or shade providers. Their potential negative impact on ecosystem services is through reducing the flowering density of red anemones, which in turn are an economical ecosystem service as they attract tourism.
Differences between the species: The study found major differences in the three Eucalyptus species’ effect on herbaceous communities, with E. torquata having a negative effect on biodiversity (of up to ~90% reduction), while the other two species did not show an effect.
Given the findings, the researchers advise caution in planting certain Eucalyptus species’ trees in areas intended for tourism, such as the 'Darom Adom' (red south) festival, and in regions home to rare or protected species. Significant differences between Eucalyptus species were noted, with some species exhibiting minor negative effects. Therefore, the researchers recommend prioritizing species with minimal impact for reforestation efforts.
This study underscores the need for careful consideration of the ecological impacts of Eucalyptus plantations in the Western Negev. While these trees offer certain benefits, their allelopathic properties can negatively influence local plant communities and ecosystem services. Reforestation efforts should be led by data-driven decision-making, and supported by further research, to deepen our understanding.
Anemone Against a Winter Flow in Be’eri Forest in Southern Israel
te near Reim Junction
CREDIT
Yuval Neumann
The study was conducted in the spring of 2023 in the Be’eri forest and near Kibbutz Re’im to investigate the impact of Eucalyptus trees on herbaceous plant communities. Tragically, mere months after this research, the Hamas launched an attack on Israel and the region was struck by devastating events. Our thoughts are with all those affected, both physically and mentally. We remain hopeful for the restoration of this region, known for its stunning natural beauty, and aspire that our findings will contribute to these restoration efforts.
METHOD OF RESEARCH
Observational study
SUBJECT OF RESEARCH
Not applicable
ARTICLE TITLE
The effects of Eucalyptus on herbaceous plant communities in the Western Negev
Nanoparticle vaccines: A leap forward in veterinary medicine
HUAZHONG AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
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ADAPTIVE IMMUNE ACTIVATION INDUCED BY NP (SAPN/VLPS) VACCINES.
A recent review explores the innovative use of self-assembled protein nanoparticles (SAPNs) and virus-like particles (VLPs) in veterinary vaccine development. The research highlights the superior safety and efficacy of these nanovaccines over traditional formulations, offering a promising future for animal health and disease prevention.
Classical vaccines often rely on traditional technologies, such as live attenuated or inactivated pathogens, which carry inherent risks including reduced immunogenicity under certain conditions and potential safety concerns. This has spurred the need for innovative approaches that can provide safer and more effective prophylactic solutions in veterinary medicine. SAPNs emerge as a cutting-edge solution, harnessing the power of nanotechnology to revolutionize vaccine design and implementation.
The article (DOI: 10.1186/s44149-024-00119-w), published on 10 May 2024, in the Animal Diseasesjournal, researchers at Zhejiang University's Institute of Preventive Veterinary Medicine, delve into the development and application of SAPNs and VLPs, offering a detailed discussion of their potential in veterinary medicine.
The article focuses on various types of SAPNs, including natural and synthetically designed nanoparticles. These nanoparticles are tailored to enhance the immune system's ability to recognize and respond to pathogens more effectively. Key highlights include the use of animal virus-derived nanoparticles and bacteriophage-derived nanoparticles, which have shown the potential to elicit strong cellular and humoral responses. The nanoparticles' ability to mimic pathogen structures enables them to trigger a more substantial immune reaction, potentially leading to long-lasting immunity. Researchers have documented successes in using these nanoparticles to protect against diseases like foot-and-mouth disease and swine fever, showcasing their broad applicability and effectiveness.
Dr.Fang He, a principal investigator of the article, expressed the significance of this review, " Nanoparticle vaccines have demonstrated enormous promise and should be considered promising techniques in veterinary vaccine development."
Veterinary nanoparticle vaccines have broad implications, with the potential to extend the benefits beyond veterinary applications into human health. The enhanced safety and immunogenicity of these vaccines could lead to the development of advanced vaccines for human use. Additionally, by reducing the environmental impact of livestock diseases, this technology may contribute to more sustainable agricultural practices globally.
Animal Diseases（ISSN 2731-0442, CN 42-1946/S）is a peer-reviewed, free open access academic journal sponsored by Huazhong Agricultural University. The journal promotes the One Health initiative and is committed to publishing high-quality innovated and prospective works in animal disease research/application that are closely related to human health. The founding chief editors are Drs. Huanchun Chen (Huazhong Agricultural University, China) and Zhen F. Fu (University of Georgia, USA). It has been indexed by ESCI in 2024.
A new study demonstrates an advance in treating antibiotic-resistant infections in animals through personalized phage therapy. The treatment combined a specific anti-P. aeruginosa phage applied topically with ceftazidime administered intramuscularly, resulting in the complete healing of a persistent surgical wound after fourteenweeks. This highlights the potential of phage therapy as a practical and effective solution for antibiotic-resistant infections in veterinary practice, with implications for human medicine as well.
A new study led by Prof. Ronen Hazan and his team, from the Faculty of Dental Medicine at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem, in collaboration with the team of Vet Holim, JVMV -Veterinary medical center in Kiryat -Anavim, Israel, has shown an advance in the treatment of antibiotic-resistant infections in animals. This research, focusing on a five-year-old Siamese cat Squeaks with a multidrug-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection post-arthrodesis surgery, marks the first published documented application of personalized phage therapy in veterinary medicine.
Squeaks, initially treated at the JVMV for injuries sustained from a high-rise fall, developed a severe infection in the right hind leg following multiple surgeries. This infection persisted despite various antibiotic treatments over four months. Facing a potential implant-replacement surgery, the team turned to the new treatment which involved a meticulously designed combination of a specific anti-P. aeruginosa phage, a virus that kills bacteria, applied topically to the surgical wound and ceftazidime administered intramuscularly. Moreover, the owners of the cat, after short demonstration, provides most of the treatment doses of phages and antibiotics at their home.
The integration of phage therapy with antibiotics was aimed at targeting the pathogen effectively and directly at the site of infection, leveraging the phage’s ability to be applied topically, which simplifies administration and maximizes its concentration at the infection site. This approach allowed the surgical wound, which had remained open for five months, to fully heal after to fourteen weeks of treatment.
The successful outcome of this case underscores the critical need for novel therapeutics like phage therapy to address the growing concern of antibiotic-resistant infections, which affect up to 8.5% of surgical sites following orthopedic surgeries in companion animals. These infections not only pose significant health risks to the animals but also increase the morbidity, mortality, and costs associated with these procedures.
Recent studies suggest that phage therapy, already showing high success rates in human medicine for treating orthopedic infections and chronically infected wounds, can offer a promising solution for similar issues in veterinary practice. Moreover, the successful treatment of this cat by its owners at home highlights the practicality and efficacy of personalized phage therapy, which could be extended to treat other pets facing similar antimicrobial resistance challenges.
Interestingly, opposite to common situations, this case was performed on an animal based on the team's insights from treating humans first.
The positive reception from veterinarians and pet owners regarding phage therapy points to a growing awareness and acceptance of this treatment option. As the new treatment continues to be explored in veterinary settings, it not only improves the health and well-being of pets but also offers valuable data that contribute to the broader application of phage therapy in both animals and humans. This bridging of data can enhance treatment protocols and outcomes across a variety of bacterial infections, potentially changing the landscape of infection treatment in both veterinary and human medicine.
Successful phage-antibiotic therapy of P. aeruginosa implant-associated infection in a Siamese cat
Phage therapy: In-depth discussion on ethical considerations and regulatory landscape at upcoming European conference “Targeting Phage Therapy 2024”
MITOCHONDRIA-MICROBIOTA TASK FORCE
IMAGE:
BARBARA BRENNER, A LEGAL EXPERT IN MEDICAL LAW AND HUMAN RIGHTS, WILL DELIVER A TALK TITLED "REGULATORY RESTRICTIONS VS. HUMAN RIGHTS, THE HIPPOCRATIC OATH, AND THE FREEDOM OF THERAPY – THE LEGAL ASPECT OF PHAGE THERAPY" AT TARGETING PHAGE THERAPY ON JUNE 20-21, 2024
The 7th World Conference on Targeting Phage Therapy 2024 is set to take place on June 20-21 at the Corinthia Palace in Malta, welcoming over 150 attendees from 30 countries and featuring more than 32 communications. This annual event showcases the latest advancements in phage research and therapy, emphasizing how these developments could revolutionize healthcare practices globally.
The Ethical Considerations and Regulatory Landscape of Phage Therapy will be highlighted
Targeting Phage Therapy 2024 will include a dedicated session on the ethical and regulatory aspects of phage therapy, particularly in Europe. Barbara Brenner, a legal expert in medical law and human rights, will deliver a talk titled "Regulatory Restrictions vs. Human Rights, the Hippocratic Oath, and the Freedom of Therapy – The Legal Aspect of Phage Therapy". Her presentation will focus on balancing regulatory frameworks with the urgent need for accessible, life-saving treatments.
Phage therapy faces significant regulatory and ethical challenges, and Brenner will address several critical points:
- Regulatory Frameworks and Human Rights: Brenner will provide an overview of EU and German legal and regulatory frameworks, highlighting the tension between the right to safe drugs and the right to life-saving treatment in emergencies, especially concerning antimicrobial-resistant (AMR) infections and non-GMP phages.
- Ethical and Legal Questions: The session will explore whether it is ethical to deny life-saving treatments for safety reasons and whether regulatory bodies like the FDA and EMA can be held liable for prohibiting non-GMP phages if GMP phages are unavailable or unaffordable. Additionally, Brenner will discuss the validity of scientific evidence derived from anecdotal sources versus the necessity of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and whether these trials need to be redesigned. The legal status of phage therapy as "experimental" and the potential liability of clinicians who refuse phage therapy when it could save a patient will also be examined.
- Combatting Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR): The presentation will include the One Health approach, integrating human, animal, and environmental health practices. Brenner will highlight Georgia's successful model, advocating for the promotion of phages as primary interventions, reserving chemical antibiotics for situations where phages are ineffective.
Speakers Lineup
Robert T. Schooley, University of California, San Diego, USA
Clinical Trials in Phage Therapeutics: Looking Under the Hood
Ekaterina Chernevskaya, Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Russia
Adaptive Phage Therapy in the Intensive Care Unit: From Science to Patients
Jean-Paul Pirnay, Queen Astrid Military Hospital, Belgium
Magistral Phage Preparations: Is This the Model for Everyone?
Barbara Brenner, Kanzlei BRENNER, Germany
Regulatory restrictions vs. Human Rights, the Hippocratic oath and the Freedom of therapy– The legal aspect ofphage therapy
Nannan Wu, Shanghai Public Health Clinical Center, Fudan University, China
Phage Therapy: A Glimpse into Clinical Studies Involving Over 150 Cases
Graham F. Hatfull, University of Pittsburgh, USA
Mycobacteriophages and Their Therapeutic Potential
Antonia P. Sagona, University of Warwick, United Kingdom
Genetic Engineering of Phages to Target Intracellular Bloodstream E.coli Infections
Paul Turner, Yale University, USA
Leveraging Evolutionary Trade-Offs in Development of Phage Therapy
Pieter-Jan Ceyssens, Sciensano, Belgium
Quality control of phage Active Pharmaceutical Ingredients (APIs) in Belgium
Wolfgang Weninger, Medical University of Vienna, Austria
The Phageome in Normal and Inflamed Human Skin
Sabrina Green, KU Leuven, Belgium
Making Antibiotics Great Again: Phage resistance in vivo correlates to resensitivity to antibiotics in pan-resistant Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Rodrigo Ibarra Chávez, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
Phage Satellites, a Diversity of Extradimensional Symbionts and Pathways to Phage Therapy
Domenico Frezza, University of Roma Tor Vergata, Italy
Towards efficient phage therapies: investigation of phage / bacteria equilibrium with metagenome of dark matter in natural samples
Besarion Lasareishvili, Eliava Institute of Bacteriophage, Microbiology and Virology, Georgia
Modern Concepts of Phage Therapy: An Immunologist’s Vision
Kilian Vogele, Invitris, Germany
Cell-Free Production of Personalized Therapeutic Phages Targeting Multidrug-Resistant Bacteria
Frederic Bertels, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Biology, Germany
Improving Phages through Experimental Evolution
Eugene V Koonin, National Institutes of Health, USA
Evolution and megataxonomy of viruses: the place of phages in the virosphere
Federica Briani, University of Milan, Italy
Addressing Phage Resistance to Enhance the Robustness of Phage Therapy for Pseudomonas aeruginosa Infections in People with Cystic Fibrosis
Jumpei Fujiki, University of California San Diego, USA
Phage therapy: Targeting intestinal bacterial microbiota for the treatment of liver disease
Brain damage reveals part of the brain necessary for helping others
UNIVERSITY OF BIRMINGHAM
Our willingness to help others is governed by a specific brain region pinpointed by researchers in a study of patients with brain damage to that region.
Learning about where in the brain ‘helping’ decisions are made is important for understanding how people might be motivated to tackle large global challenges, such as climate change, infectious disease and international conflict. It is also essential for finding new approaches to treating disorders of social interactions.
The study, published in Nature Human Behaviour, was carried out by researchers at the University of Birmingham and the University of Oxford, and shows for the first time how a region called the ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) has a critical role in helping, or ‘prosocial’ behaviours.
Lead author Professor Patricia Lockwood said: “Prosocial behaviours are essential for addressing global challenges. Yet helping others is often effortful and humans are averse to effort. Understanding how effortful helping decisions are processed in the brain is extremely important.”
In the study, the researchers focused on the vmPFC, a region located right at the front of the brain, which is known to be important for decision-making and other executive functions. Previous studies using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI scanning) have linked the vmPFC to choices that involve a trade-off between the rewards available and the effort required to obtain rewards. However, these techniques cannot show whether a part of the brain is essential for these functions.
Three groups of participants were recruited for the study. 25 patients had vmPFC damage, 15 patients had damage elsewhere in the brain, and 40 people were healthy age and gender-matched control participants. These groups allowed the researchers to test the impact of damage to vmPFC specifically.
Each participant attended an experiment where they met another person anonymously. They then completed a decision-making task that measured how willing they were to exert physical effort (squeezing a grip force device) to earn rewards (bonus money) for themselves and for the other person.
By enabling participants to meet – but not see – the person they were ‘working’ for in advance, researchers were able to convey the sense that participants’ efforts would have real consequences, but hide any information about the other person that could affect decision-making.
Each choice the participants made varied in how much bonus money for them or the other person was available, and how much force they would have to exert to obtain the reward. This allowed the researchers to measure the impact of reward and effort separately, and to use advanced mathematical modelling to precisely quantify people’s motivation.
The results of the study clearly showed that the vmPFC was necessary for motivation to help others. Patients with vmPFC damage were less willing to choose to help others, exerted less force on even after they did decide to help, and earned less money to help others compared to the control groups.
In a further step, the researchers used a technique called lesion symptom mapping which enabled them to identify even more specific subregions of the vmPFC where damage made people particularly antisocial and unwilling to exert effort for the other person. Surprisingly, damage to a nearby but different subregion made people relatively more willing to help.
Co-lead author Dr Jo Cutler said: “As well as better understanding prosocial motivation, this study could also help us to develop new treatments for clinical disorders such as psychopathy, where understanding the underlying neural mechanisms can give us new insights into how to treat these conditions.”
“This region of the brain is particularly interesting because we know that it undergoes late development in teenagers, and also changes as we get older,” added Professor Lockwood. “It will be really interesting to see whether this area of the brain can also be influenced by education – can we learn to be better at helping others?”
