Engineers have built machines to scrub CO2 from the air – and it could halt climate change

by THE CONVERSATION — 7 hours ago in SYNDICATION

Credit: Unsplash

On Wednesday this week, the concentration of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere was measured at 415 parts per million (ppm). The level is the highest in human history, and is growing each year.

Amid all the focus on emissions reduction, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) says it will not be enough to avoid dangerous levels of global warming. The world must actively remove historical CO₂ already in the atmosphere – a process often described as “negative emissions.”

CO₂ removal can be done in two ways. The first is by enhancing carbon storage in natural ecosystems, such as planting more forests or storing more carbon in soil. The second is by using direct air capture (DAC) technology that strips CO₂ from the ambient air, then either store it underground or turn it into products.

US research published last week suggested global warming could be slowed with an emergency deployment of a fleet of “CO₂ scrubbers” using DAC technology. However, a wartime level of funding from government and business would be needed. So is direct air capture worth the time and money?

Direct air capture of CO2 will be needed to address climate change. Shutterstock

What’s DAC all about?

Direct air capture refers to any mechanical system capturing CO₂ from the atmosphere. Plants operating today use a liquid solvent or solid sorbent to separate CO₂ from other gases.

Swiss company Climeworks operates 15 direct air capture machines across Europe, comprising the world’s first commercial DAC system. The operation is powered by renewable geothermal energy or energy produced by burning waste.

The machines use a fan to draw air into a “collector,” inside which a selective filter captures CO₂. Once the filter is full, the collector is closed and the CO₂ is sequestered underground.

Canadian company Carbon Engineering uses giant fans to pull air into a tower-like structure. The air passes over a potassium hydroxide solution which chemically binds to the CO₂ molecules, and removes them from the air. The CO₂ is then concentrated, purified, and compressed.

Captured CO₂ can be injected into the ground to extract oil, in some cases helping to counteract the emissions produced by burning the oil.

The proponents of the Climeworks and Carbon Engineering technology say their projects are set for large-scale investment and deployment in coming years. Globally, the potential market value of DAC technology could reach US$100bn by 2030, on some estimates.

Artist impression of a DAC facility to be built in the US state of Texas. If built, it would be the largest of its kind in the world. Carbon Engineering

Big challenges ahead

Direct air capture faces many hurdles and challenges before it can make a real dent in climate change.

DAC technology is currently expensive, relative to many alternative ways of capturing CO₂, but is expected to become cheaper as the technology scales up. The economic feasibility will be helped by the recent emergence of new carbon markets where negative emissions can be traded.

DAC machines process an enormous volume of air, and as such are very energy-intensive. In fact, research has suggested direct air capture machines could use a quarter of global energy in 2100. However new DAC methods being developed could cut the technology’s energy use.

[Read: How this company leveraged AI to become the Netflix of Finland]

While the challenges to direct air capture are great, the technology uses less land and water than other negative emissions technologies such as planting forests or storing CO₂ in soils or oceans.

DAC technology is also increasingly gaining the backing of big business. Microsoft, for example, last year included the technology in its carbon negative plan.

Direct air capture is touted as a way to offset emissions from industry and elsewhere. Shutterstock

Opportunities for Australia

Australia is uniquely positioned to be a world leader in direct air capture. It boasts large areas of land not suitable for growing crops. It has ample sunlight, meaning there is great potential to host DAC facilities powered by solar energy. Australia also has some of the world’s best sites in which to “sequester” or store carbon in underground reservoirs.

Direct air capture is a relatively new concept in Australia. Australian company Southern Green Gas, as well as the CSIRO, are developing solar-powered DAC technologies. The SGG project, with which I am involved, involves modular units potentially deployed in large numbers, including close to sites where captured CO₂ can be used in oil recovery or permanently stored.

If DAC technology can overcome its hurdles, the benefits will extend beyond tackling climate change. It would create a new manufacturing sector and potentially re-employ workers displaced by the decline of fossil fuels.

Australia has ample sunlight and plenty of non-arable land where DAC facilities could be built. Shutterstock

Looking ahead

The urgency of removing CO₂ from the atmosphere seems like an enormous challenge. But not acting will bring far greater challenges: more climate and weather extremes, irreversible damage to biodiversity and ecosystems, species extinction, and threats to health, food, water, and economic growth.

DAC technology undoubtedly faces stiff headwinds. But with the right policy incentives and market drivers, it may be one of a suite of measures that start reversing climate change.

This article is republished from The Conversation by Deanna D’Alessandro, Professor & ARC Future Fellow, University of Sydney under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

NASA delays Juno spacecraft’s retirement after detecting mysterious radio waves


by THE COSMIC COMPANION — 1 day ago in SYNDICATION

Credit: NASA / JPL

The Juno spacecraft, orbiting Jupiter since 2016, has a new lease on life, thanks to NASA. This robotic explorer is now due to continue its mission, at least until September 2025.

A mission extension recently granted by NASA extends the Juno program means the spacecraft will continue to gather science about the largest planet in our Solar System and its retinue of dozens of moons. Some of these moons are known to have water (particularly Europa), and they may be among the most-likely places in the Solar System where we might find primitive life.

“Since its first orbit in 2016, Juno has delivered one revelation after another about the inner workings of this massive gas giant. With the extended mission, we will answer fundamental questions that arose during Juno’s prime mission while reaching beyond the planet to explore Jupiter’s ring system and Galilean satellites,” Scott Bolton of the Southwest Research Institute, states.
Juno what?

A look at the instruments and capabilities of the Juno spacecraft.

 Image credit: NASA/JPL

The Juno spacecraft, first proposed in 2003, launched to Jupiter in 2011. Its primary mission, to explore how Jupiter formed and developed over time, was set to complete in July 2021.

This extended mission includes 42 additional orbits of Jupiter, including flybys of its moons Ganymede, Io, and Europa. Observations will also be taken of polar cyclones at the poles of Jupiter, and NASA will undertake the first-ever detailed study of the faint ring system encircling the planet.

Not only will these flybys provide amazing views and data concerning the moons of this mighty world, but these close encounters will also result in a shorter orbit, increasing the number of orbits Juno is able to complete.
A look at how flybys of moons of Jupiter will shorten the time it takes for the spacecraft to orbit, increasing the number of total orbits, meaning more science. Image credit: NASA/JPL

“The mission designers have done an amazing job crafting an extended mission that conserves the mission’s single most valuable onboard resource — fuel. Gravity assists from multiple satellite flybys steer our spacecraft through the Jovian system while providing a wealth of science opportunities,” Ed Hirst, Juno project manager at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) states.

The satellite flybys begin June 7, 2021, when Juno will pass low over Ganymede, reducing the orbital period of the spacecraft from 53 to 43 days. This pass will also send Juno hurtling toward the water moon of Europa. Following its arrival there on September 29, 2022, the orbital period of Juno will fall to 38 days. Another pair of encounters — on December 30, 2023 and February 3, 2024 — will reduce the time it takes Juno to orbit Jupiter down to just 33 days — roughly 63 percent of its original period.

Of course, technical issues or an accident could always silence Juno before the planned mission expires. But, Juno is ready to explore this fascinating system for years to come.

Although, I would TOTALLY listen to that station…

Somewhere, there may be alien DJ’s. Just not here. Image credit: The Cosmic Companion / DJ Image by DJIrocksit / Alien head by Pixabay

“Billy is face to face with outer space… Messages from distant stars… The local police calling all cars, radio waves… Hear them radio waves, radio waves…” — Radio Waves, Roger Waters

Juno also recently detected FM radio waves coming from one of Jupiter’s largest moons, Ganymede. The waves were detected in magnetic lines connecting Ganymede to the polar regions of Jupiter.

However, this is not likely to be the result of an extraterrestrial Wolfman Jack broadcasting out the biggest hits of Jupiter.

“It’s not E.T. It’s more of a natural function,” NASA spokesperson Patrick Wiggens tells KTVX in Utah.
See what Juno would look like, rotating in space. (Video credit: The Cosmic Companion / Created in NASA’s Eyes Visualization software.)

Radio emissions around Jupiter, first detected in 1955, have been studied by researchers for decades.

The signal, seen for just five seconds as the spacecraft screamed past Ganymede at 180,000 KPH (nearly 112,000 MPH), was likely the result of electrons amplifying radio waves, in a process called cyclotron maser instability (CMI). This same effect, which likely resulted in the detection, can also generate ultraviolet auroras, also seen by Juno.

Over the coming years, Juno will provide ongoing data to researchers managing future missions to Jupiter, including NASA’s Europa Clipper and the JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) mission from the European Space Agency.


This article was originally published on The Cosmic Companion by James Maynard, founder and publisher of The Cosmic Companion. He is a New England native turned desert rat in Tucson, where he lives with his lovely wife, Nicole, and Max the Cat. You can read this original piece here.

Astronomy News with The Cosmic Companion is also available as a weekly podcast, carried on all major podcast providers. Tune in every Tuesday for updates on the latest astronomy news, and interviews with astronomers and other researchers working to uncover the nature of the Universe.

ENGLISH TABLOID DISCOVERS ATHEISM

Life after death: Brian Cox says physics 'ruled out' the human soul at particle level

LIFE after death theories collapse under scientific scrutiny because the field of particle physics has "ruled out" the possibility of humans having a soul, renowned physicist Brian Cox has claimed.

By SEBASTIAN KETTLEY

PUBLISHED: Mon, Jan 25, 2021 

Questions about the afterlife remain unanswered with the jury still out on whether life after death is real. Many people claim to know what happens when we die, based on anecdotal evidence and stories from so-called near-death experiences or NDEs. People who have stood on the brink of death often recall visions of bright lights or memories of seeing their deceased loved ones.

NDEs are often reported by people who have gone into cardiac arrest or were briefly declared clinically dead while on the operating table.

In some instances, the visions and memories are very detailed, such as the man who claimed he met Satan in hell.

The medical sciences have tried to explain these phenomena through residual brain activity or chemical reactions triggered by intense trauma.

Particle physicist and TV presenter Brian Cox has, however, taken the discussion one step further and explained why there is no measurable evidence of humans having souls that could live on after death.

Life after death: Professor Brian Cox thinks physics rules out a human soul (Image: GETTY)

Life after death: The particle physicist appeared on the Joe Rogan Podcast 

(Image: JOE RGAN YOUTUBE)

The popstar-turned-scientist appeared on the Joe Rogan Podcast where he discussed the idea of humans having souls, among other topics.

In his estimate, there is no observable force - the soul - that interacts with the human body at the subatomic level.

If such a force existed within us, it would strongly react with the particles our bodies are made of.

Instead, physicists have so far only observed four fundamental forces governing this world - gravity, the weak and strong nuclear force, and electromagnetism.

None of these forces could explain the concept of a soul trapped inside the body.

Brian Cox says humans are ‘configurations of atoms’

I would say that it's ruled out

Brian Cox, University of Manchester

Professor Cox, who teaches at the School of Physics and Astronomy at the University of Manchester, said: "So, here is my arm. It is made of electrons and protons and neutrons.

"If I have a soul in there, something we don't understand but it's a different kind of energy or whatever it is we don't have in physics at the moment.

"It interacts with matter because I'm moving my hand around.

"So whatever it is, it is something that interacts very strongly with matter."

Professor Cox went on to say scientists have made ultra-high precision measurements looking for a fifth force of nature, but have not found one.

Consequently, the human soul can be ruled out on the most fundamental level imaginable.

The physicist added: "If you want to suggest there's something else that interacts with matter strongly, then I would say that it's ruled out.

"I would go as far as to say it is ruled out by experiments.

"Or at least it is extremely subtle and you would have to jump through a lot of hoops to come up with a theory of some stuff that we wouldn't have seen when we've observed how matter interacts."

According to one theory, NDEs are caused by residual brain activity even when the body is shutting down.

Some researchers have proposed the visions and memories are hallucinations caused by not enough oxygen flowing into the brain.

Similarly, some theories speculate NDEs are hallucinations caused by brain cell death.

A more out-there theory suggests the dying body synthesises the psychoactive chemical N,N-Dimethyltryptamine or DMT.

Manchester Metropolitan University (MMU) researchers Neil Dagnall and Ken Drinkwater said: "Currently, there is no definitive explanation for why near-death experiences happen.

"But ongoing research still strives to understand this enigmatic phenomenon."

Physicist Michio Kaku says digital life after death is 'within reach'

PEI

Unfarming: New P.E.I. farm sanctuary offers unwanted animals a home

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'There's no reason in today's world that you need to eat animals'

Sara Fraser · CBC News · Posted: Jan 23, 2021 6:00 AM AT | Last Updated: January 23

Brandy and Ryan Mooney at Valleyfield Farm Sanctuary in P.E.I. with their miniature goats and potbellied pigs. (Sara Fraser/CBC

Humane Canada has been seeing a growth in farm sanctuaries across the country — and an operation run by Brandy and Ryan Mooney and their family just west of Montague, P.E.I. is one of the latest. 

The Mooneys bought an old farm last year, moving to the Island from Ontario to fulfil their dream of setting up a small sanctuary for unwanted farm animals to live out their lives. 

So far their Valleyfield Farm Sanctuary has a flock of more than 50 chickens, domestic ducks, a couple of goats, four pigs and three steers. They accept animals from Nova Scotia and New Brunswick as well as P.E.I.

"Not that we shame others, but our way of life is plant-based, so we try to save as many lives as we can," Brandy Mooney says. 

"There's no reason in today's world that you need to eat animals. There's so many options as a vegetarian or vegan where you don't need that any longer." 

To save them from someone's stockpot, we took them in.— Brandy Mooney

Mooney said they didn't always feel this way — she grew up on a poultry farm and her husband on a beef farm, and helped care for the animals.

But after growing up and raising their own family, they gradually changed their minds and their diets. 

"We all decided enough was enough," she said. 

'We took them in'

To support the farm and the family, Mooney's husband Ryan works as a service technician at a local garage. Back in Ontario, Brandy worked as a nurse and as an office administrator, but now she works on the farm full-time.

These three steers call the sanctuary home. One was offered free on Kijiji, one was given by another wildlife sanctuary in Nova Scotia and one was purchased in N.S. and donated. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

She said the family has chosen to do without a lot of life's luxuries like newer cars, a fancy house and brand-name clothing to be able to afford feed, shelter and veterinary care for the animals. The sanctuary also solicits donations online, and sells branded T-shirts. 

"A lot of animals that do come do need vet care immediately," she said, citing "bad situations" that left them injured or underweight.  

Some of the poultry came from backyard chicken farmers who tried the trend during the COVID-19 pandemic and decided it wasn't for them, or discovered they were contravening municipal bylaws, she said. 

The sanctuary has taken in some ducks from people who were trying to keep them in apartments, but quickly realized they couldn't, says Brandy Mooney. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

They have 40 hens and a "bachelor flock" of about 15 roosters — often rejected because they're loud — as well as about 30 ducks, some of which people tried to keep in apartments (like in the TV show Friends). 

The hens do lay eggs, Mooney said, but the family doesn't eat them or profit from them — they feed them back to the chickens. 

"We have two 11-year-old chickens right now," she said. "We do have some some elder girls that stopped laying and in order to save them from someone's stockpot, we took them in." 

• How Fern the pig found a storybook ending

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Animals come from variety of sources

A couple of goats were given to them by the family of a man who died, she said, and their two commercial pigs came from the SPCA in New Brunswick, where they were found running down Main Street in Saint John this summer.

The Mooney family purchased this farm in rural P.E.I and moved from Ontario last April. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

They found a Jersey calf advertised for sale on Kijiji, she said. Others have been donated by like-minded people who have purchased them at livestock auctions in the Maritimes. 

They also periodically receive rabbits, cats and dogs, Mooney said. Sometimes they are left at the farm, while other times people ask them to take them because their housing situation has changed.

The family has rehomed some to what Mooney considers good homes, and has also kept some of the cats — Ryan especially falls in love with the cats and finds it hard to give them up, he said. 

The Mooneys have decided the sanctuary is at capacity and are not accepting more animals until they can build more shelter, run electricity where they need it and fence more pasture, which they are planning for this coming spring.

The couple's three children help out on the farm, and Brandy Mooney's brother and his wife also live there and help out. 

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• The Enright Files: A deep dive into the complex, emotional lives of animals

'This is our form of activism'

The Mooneys said they think the way most farm animals are treated, especially on P.E.I., is excellent, and they realize farmers care for the livestock. 

The Mooneys say one of their teenage daughters is a 'chicken whisperer' because she is so good at handling chickens, including this silky rooster. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

"I give all the farmers so much credit here," Brandy Mooney said. "Especially dairy cows are treated like gold here… it's just the end result sucks.

"It's not that they're not taken care of while they're alive; it's just we don't need to eat them."

We have certainly seen a growth in farm sanctuaries across Canada and this indicates to us a needed and welcome shift in the way Canadians view farmed animals.— Darcy Boucher, Humane Canada

She said response from neighbouring farmers to their operation has been positive — she has become friends with some, and one even helped her when her calf was sick in the middle of the night.

They said they don't plan to take their activism any further than peacefully taking in animals. 

"Having a sanctuary, this is our form of activism," Mooney said, stressing they don't want to make "too many waves." 

They don't believe they can change the agri-food system — they just want to change their place in it.

"If we can only save, say, one animal, well that's one life. We've been blessed so far to be able to save 100 lives."

• What rescued farm animals taught a photographer about aging & animal rights

• One of Quebec's only farm animal sanctuaries is fighting for survival

'It can become overwhelming very quickly'

The P.E.I. Humane Society looks after pets including cats and dogs and is not mandated to care for farm animals.

Stanley the Jersey steer loves to give kisses, especially to Ryan Mooney. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

Spokesperson Jennifer Harkness urges this sanctuary and people looking to set up others to proceed with caution.

"You have to think long and hard about capacity to care and your financial capacity. It's very hard to run an animal welfare organization. 

"It can become overwhelming very quickly." 

Only a handful of the chickens and roosters at the sanctuary wanted to venture out on this sub-zero day. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

Their parent organization, Ottawa-based Humane Canada, says it has seen an increase in the number of farm sanctuaries.

"We have certainly seen a growth in farm sanctuaries across Canada and this indicates to us a needed and welcome shift in the way Canadians view farmed animals. They are no longer just a food commodity; Canadians are recognizing them as sentient beings with complex lives deserving of love, compassion, and sanctuary," Humane Canada's marketing and communications manager Darcy Boucher said via email. 

The P.E.I. government does not have a separate set of rules for animal sanctuaries — they must follow the Animal Welfare Act, the same as all farms and pet owners. And they should have a premises identification number, required in regulations of P.E.I.'s Animal Health Act. (The Mooneys do.)

There are no inspections of sanctuaries, but the province will send an animal protection officer to investigate if there are complaints of an animal in distress. 

The P.E.I. Department of Agriculture is currently surveying Islanders about their knowledge about animal welfare, even though they say they are still proud of the relatively new 2017 Animal Welfare Act. 

A spokesperson said via email the province "is interested to learn Islanders' perspective related to reporting animal welfare concerns and laws in P.E.I. This survey allows us to see if the act and our animal welfare work are meeting the public's expectations."

'We stand by our livestock sector'

The P.E.I. Federation of Agriculture's executive director Robert Godfrey said the federation represents the sanctuary since it is a farm, along with all the other more traditional operations. 

The Mooneys hope to finish digging a duck pond on their property this spring. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

"Everybody's entitled to their beliefs," Godfrey said. "We respect their point of view." 

But it also represents the livestock sector, and Godfrey responded this way to the fact that the sanctuary says it "rescues" farm animals: "We believe the farmers of this province are exemplary when it comes to their livestock. We stand by our livestock sector… our farmers are world class and respect the welfare of their animals."

He noted there is a strong local demand for the eggs, meat, and dairy products that Island farms produce, and they are held to high standards. 

The seven-person Mooney family runs the farm sanctuary together. (Sara Fraser/CBC)

He noted it is extremely rare for farms to face complaints under the P.E.I. Animal Welfare Act. 

There are a few other animal sanctuaries on P.E.I. including several run by Buddhist monks, but most of them cater to horses, and are often at capacity. 

The Mooneys are seeking non-profit status for the sanctuary and they hope to eventually receive charitable status so they can issue tax receipts for donations they receive.

More from CBC P.E.I.

• Summerside launches new tradition to celebrate new fire truck

• Horseback riders ponder alternatives after province says neigh to Confederation Trail

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Sara Fraser

Web Journalist

Sara is a P.E.I. native who graduated from the University of King's College in Halifax. N.S., with a bachelor of journalism (honours) degree. She's worked with CBC Radio and Television since 1988, moving to the CBC P.E.I. web team in 2015, focusing on weekend features. email sara.fraser@cbc.ca

How Hydrogen Could Power The Ultimate Battery

By Irina Slav - Jan 24, 2021, 

Hydrogen as a fuel of the future is the talk of the town in energy markets. Pros and cons of green versus blue hydrogen, capacity building plans, new production technologies, you name it, researchers are working on it.

Hydrogen can be used as a fuel in fuel cell vehicles—still very expensive—and for heating—blended with natural gas. One other thing it can be used for is renewable energy storage.

Earlier this week, the Sydney Morning Herald reported on a company, LAVO, that had developed what is essentially a hydrogen battery that can take in electricity produced by solar panels and store it in the form of hydrogen, to be released on demand.

The battery, the size of a fridge, contains an electrolyzer that breaks water down into hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen is then stored in a set of canisters full of hydride—a fibrous metal alloy. The battery can be connected to a solar panel array, store the excess electricity it produces as hydrogen and then release the hydrogen to act as a battery and power various devices.

Developed in partnership with the University of New South Wales, the battery can power a household for two to three days on a single charge, the Sydney Morning Herald’s Nick O’Malley noted. It is also more durable than lithium-ion household battery packs, with its lifespan at 20 years, according to the chief executive of the developer company, Alan Yu.

This Australian battery costs more than $30,000, but there are already early buyers attracted by the convenience and probably the reliability of the installation, whose risk of hydrogen combustion is eliminated by the solid-state hydride.

This is just one example of how hydrogen can be leveraged for energy storage, in a way shooting two birds with one stone. On the one hand, hydrogen is, depending on the method of production, a relatively cheap storage option compared to battery arrays costing hundreds of millions of dollars. On the other, here is one good use that hydrogen can be put to without the need for any major technological breakthroughs.

The hydrogen is produced from excess electricity generated by solar or wind farms, stored in underground caverns or repurposed pipelines, and when the grid needs more electricity, it is fed into power plants to power their turbines and produce the necessary difference.

“As gas turbines are inherently fuel-flexible, they can be configured to operate on green hydrogen or similar fuels as a new unit, or be upgraded even after extended service on traditional fuels, i.e., natural gas,” according to GE, which is one of the companies working on integrating more hydrogen into their operations. The company adds this would come at a cost, but the cost would depend on the initial configuration of the turbine.

So, a picture emerges of a future world in which every household has its own solar farm and a battery pack that may be lithium-ion if the tech advances sufficiently, or it could be hydrogen. When the sun shines, the battery will absorb the electricity the household does not use and then release it when it’s night or when the sky is overcast.

If this picture looks too good to be true, it’s because it is, for now. Green hydrogen is an expensive source of energy, and efficiency rates during its conversion back to water are not the best ones, either, which adds to the cost. According to Green Tech Media, the efficiency rate of converting water to hydrogen and oxygen using electrolysis and then back to electricity has an efficiency rate of just 35 percent. Batteries, in comparison, have an efficiency rate of 95 percent.

But then there are products like the Australian battery developed by LAVO and the University of New South Wales. While its price tag is considerable, there is the option of sharing the hydrogen canisters, so if one buys the installations, they can then rent out the canisters.

This is a great solution at a household or small community level. Yet some governments, notably the EU, have much bigger plans for hydrogen and it is these plans that could run into the ground because of the steep cost of green hydrogen. As Rystad Energy said in a recent report, “good ingredients, bad cocktail.”

The consultancy looked specifically at the costs of producing green hydrogen using electricity from offshore wind farms, but solar is not much different because the costs of producing green hydrogen do not just include the costs of the electricity source—wind turbines or solar panels—but also the electrolyzer where water is actually turned into hydrogen and oxygen. Large electrolyzers are expensive equipment, so barring a breakthrough, green hydrogen will continue to be a lot more expensive than the hydrogen produced from natural gas.

Yet developments on the household and community level should not be underestimated. They represent small steps forward on a very long road towards energy transition, but they might turn out to be a lot more meaningful than, say, the EU’s plans to build 40 GW of green hydrogen capacity. Even if the costs of producing green hydrogen fall by 50 percent by 2050, as predicted by the International Council on Clean Transportation, they would be higher than the current prices of grey and blue hydrogen.

By Irina Slav for Oilprice.com