Recycling critical metals in e-waste: Make it the law, experts warn EU, citing raw material security

Led by the World Resources Forum, consortium designates recycling, reuse of key elements in four electronic, electrical product categories as 'critical'

CEWASTE PROJECT

Research News

 

End-of-life circuit boards, certain magnets in disc drives and electric vehicles, EV and other special battery types, and fluorescent lamps are among several electrical and electronic products containing critical raw materials (CRMs), the recycling of which should be made law, says a new UN-backed report funded by the EU.

A mandatory, legal requirement to recycle and reuse CRMs in select e-waste categories is needed to safeguard from supply disruptions elements essential to manufacturers of important electrical and electronic and other products, says a European consortium behind the report, led by the Switzerland-based World Resources Forum.

The CEWASTE consortium warns that access to the CRMs in these products is vulnerable to geo-political tides. Recycling and reusing them is "crucial" to secure ongoing supplies for regional manufacturing of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) essential for defence, renewable energy generation, LEDs and other green technologies, and to the competitiveness of European firms.

Today, recycling most of the products rich in CRMs is not commercially viable, with low and volatile CRM prices undermining efforts to improve European CRM recycling rates, which today are close to zero in most cases.

The report (available post-embargo at cewaste.eu) identifies gaps in standards and proposes an improved, fully tested certification scheme to collect, transport, process and recycle this waste, including tools to audit compliance.

"A European Union legal framework and certification scheme, coupled with broad financial measures will foster the investments needed to make recycling critical raw materials more commercially viable and Europe less reliant on outside supply sources," says the consortium.

"Acceptance by the manufacturing and recycling industry is also needed, as the standards will only work when there is widespread adoption."

The report follows the 2020 EU action plan to make Europe less dependent on third countries for CRMs by, for example, diversifying supply from both primary and secondary sources while improving resource efficiency and circularity.

Adds the consortium: "By adopting this report's recommendations, the EU can be more self-sustaining, help drive the world's green agenda and create new business opportunities at home."

The project says the following equipment categories contain CRMs in concentrations high enough to facilitate recycling:

Printed circuit boards from IT equipment, hard disc drives and optical disc drives

Batteries from WEEE and end of life vehicles

Neodymium iron boron magnets from hard disc drives, and electrical engines of e-bikes, scooters and end-of-life vehicles (ELVs)

Fluorescent powders from cathode ray tubes (CRTs; in TVs and monitors) and fluorescent lamps

Recovery technologies and processes are well established for some CRMs, such as palladium from printed circuit boards or cobalt from lithium-ion batteries.

For other CRMs, ongoing recycling technology development will soon make industrial scale operations possible but needs financial support and sufficient volumes to achieve cost-efficient operations.

Of 60+ requirements in European e-waste-related legislation and standards, few address the collection of CRMs in the key product categories, the consortium found.

They propose several additional technical, managerial, environmental, social and traceability requirements for facilities that collect, transport, and treat waste, for integration into established standards, such as the EU 50625-series.

The overall scheme was tested at European firms in Belgium, Italy, Portugal, Spain and Switzerland, as well as in Colombia, Rwanda and Turkey.

"Greater CRM recycling is a society-wide responsibility and challenge," says the consortium. "The relevant authorities must improve the economic framework conditions to make it economically viable."

CEWASTE project recommendations include:

• Legislate a requirement to recycle specific critical raw materials in e-waste

• Use market incentives to spur the economic viability of recovering CRMs and to stimulate the use of recovered CRMs in new products

• Create platforms where demand for recycled components, materials and CRMs can meet supply

• Raise awareness of the importance of CRM recycling

• Consolidate fractions of CRM-rich products into quantities more attractive for recyclers

• Improve access to information on CRM-rich components and monitor actual recycling

• Enforce rules around shipment of CRM-rich fractions outside the EU and respect of technical standards along the value chain

• Integrate CEWASTE norms and requirements into the European standard for e-waste treatment (EN 50625 series) and make the whole set legally binding

* Support more targeted private investments in new technology research and development.

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The consortium

World Resources Forum Association (Coordinator)

The World Resources Forum Association (WRFA) is an independent non-profit international organization that serves as a platform connecting and fostering knowledge exchange on resources management amongst business leaders, policy-makers, NGOs, scientists and the public. WRFA has an international reputation for its flagship conference, the World Resources Forum (WRF). http://www.wrforum.org

Oeko-institut

Oeko-Institut is a leading independent European research and consultancy institute working for a sustainable future. Founded in 1977, the institute develops principles and strategies for realising the vision of sustainable development globally, nationally and locally. Work is organised around the subjects of Chemicals Management and Technology Assessment, Energy and Climate, Immission and Radiation Protection, Agriculture and Biodiversity, Sustainability in Consumption, Mobility, Resource Management and Industry, Nu-clear Engineering and Facility Safety as well as Law, Policy and Governance. http://www.oeko.de

European Electronics Recyclers Association

EERA is a non profit organisation which represents and promotes the interest of recycling companies that are treating waste from electrical and electronic equipment. Its membership includes 35 specialist recycling companies (pre- processors and end- processors ) across 23 countries in Europe. http://www.eera-recyclers.com

WEEE Forum

The WEEE Forum is the world's largest multi-national centre of competence as regards operational know-how concerning the management of waste electrical and electronic equipment (or 'WEEE', for short). It is a not-for-profit association of 43 WEEE producer responsibility organisations across the world and was founded in April 2002. Through exchange of best practice and access to its reputable knowledge base toolbox, the WEEE Forum enables its members to improve their operations and be known as promoters of the circular economy. http://www.weee-forum.org

Austrian Standards

Austrian Standards International - Standardization and Innovation is the recognized standardization body in Austria, a non-profit service organization founded in 1920 and part of a national and international standardization network: i.e. the Austrian member of the European Committee for Standardization CEN, the International Organization for Standardization ISO and the European Telecommunications Standards Institute ETSI. Austrian Standards International cooperates with OVE which is the responsible for standardization in the electrotechnical field being member of CENELEC and IEC. http://www.austrian-standards.at

SGS Fimko Oy

SGS Fimko Oy belongs to the world's leading inspection, verification, testing and certification company SGS. With more than 95 000 employees, SGS operates a network of more than 2400 offices and laboratories around the world. SGS Fimko Oy has been operating in Finland since 1924 and today employs about 120 professionals in six locations. SGS Fimko Oy provides diverse inspection, testing, verification and certification services and holds Notified Body status as well as several accreditations. http://www.sgs.com

Sofies

Sofies provides strategic sustainability consulting, project management and services. Using an integrative approach based on industrial ecology, Sofies successfully addresses growing environmental and socioeconomic challenges. It is a Geneva-based international group, with branches in Zurich, UK and India, with a unique expertise in WEEE management and policy-making. Sofies has a track record in 25+ countries across Europe, Asia and Africa. http://www.sofiesgroup.com

United Nations University

United Nations University (UNU) is as a UN Organization a global think tank and postgraduate teaching organisation headquartered in Tokyo hosted by Japan. The Sustainable Cycles (SCYCLE) is a Programme hosted by the UNU Vice Rectorate in Europe based in Bonn, Germany. Its activities are focused on the development of sustainable production, consumption and disposal patterns for electrical and electronic equipment, as well as other ubiquitous goods. UNU-ViE SCYCLE is leading the way in global quantification of e-waste product flows, with more detailed e-waste generated/arising analyses carried out in individual EU Member States, such as the Netherlands, Belgium, France, Italy, Romania and the Czech Republic. http://www.unu.edu and http://www.scycle.vie.unu.edu

ECOS

ECOS is a non-profit organisation working to promote environmental aspects in the development of standards and specifications at European and international level, especially those produced in support of EU environmental laws and policies. ECOS' mission is to influence the development of ambitious strategies to reduce and control sources of environmental pollution, and to promote resource and energy efficiency, environmental health and sustainable development. http://www.ecostandard.org

Once we're past the fear stage, where do

we place the blame for the COVID-19

 pandemic?

THE POLISH ASSOCIATION OF SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY

Research News

 

In a time of a global crisis such as the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic, it is easy to note how people move through different phases to buckle up for such unprecedented and arduous times.

In the very beginning of the pandemic last year, we observed "an epidemic of fear", where it was all about the calamitous nature of a totally unknown virus and its worrying contagiousness and mortality rate. A few months later, with lockdown and restrictions already in place across the world, the fear was replaced by "an epidemic of explanations", where people even in their naivety, started to seek a sense of comfort by placing the blame on someone or something out of their control.

This is why a research team at the SWPS University of Social Sciences and Humanities and the Polish Academy of Sciences sought to figure out whether the government was indeed the main culprit for the spread of the COVID-19 pandemic in the eyes of the public. After all, it fitted best the role of an actor of higher authority, allegedly powerful enough to protect the community and resolve the issue at hand and provide the necessary comfort. In the meantime, it comes as an easy target to point a finger at for 'not doing enough'. On the other hand, the public could as well be explaining the situation with the virulence of the Coronavirus or with the irresponsible behaviour of others in the society. Regardless of the answer, the team was interested in understanding what's behind one's reasoning: was it their political views, well-being or emotions?

To test their hypotheses, the researchers chose to conduct their study in Poland: a country currently politically divided between Liberalism and Communitarianism, with the latter being the ruling party at the time of the survey, which took place between May and June 2020. A total of 850 Polish adults fully diversified in terms of gender, age, and education participated. The findings are now published in the open-access, peer-reviewed scientific journal Social Psychological Bulletin.

As a result, the study concluded that not only was it the government and the system that most of the participants attributed responsibility to for the COVID-19 incidence rates, but that the political views and party preferences of the participants played an incomparably more significant role in their responses than factors such as anxiety, stress and depression levels or overall self-reported well-being. In fact, amongst the mental health symptoms, the study found that only increased anxiety was statistically significantly related to the tendency to blame the government and its decisions. This could be explained by the fact that people experiencing higher anxiety levels are more likely to exaggerate external responsibility, note the scientists. Curiously, the more educated participants were found to be more likely to emphasise governmental responsibility.

Furthermore, the people with lebaral views who did not support the ruling communitarian party blamed the government to a higher degree than their counterparts, who would often place the responsibility for the spread of COVID-19 on non-governmental factors.

In their study, the research team uses several theories to explain this finding, including the Terror Management Theory, which notes that reminding people of their mortality induces an existential threat that also leads to an increased need for protection provided by worldview-based beliefs. On the other hand, the theories of attribution and social roles suggest that people see the 'adequate protection against epidemic' as part of the government's duties.

In conclusion, the authors remind that their observations during the survey are consistent with previous reports as a result of natural disasters.

"Citizens observe governmental activities during the epidemic period and evaluate government responsibility. In the light of the results of previous studies on the social perception of natural disasters, we think that this is a rather general phenomenon. Looking for an explanation of the epidemic effects, people tend to blame salient external causes," say the researchers.

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Research article:

Skarzynska, K., Urbanska, B., & Radkiewicz, P. (2021). Under or Out of Government Control? The Effects of Individual Mental Health and Political Views on the Attribution of Responsibility for COVID-19 Incidence Rates. Social Psychological Bulletin, 16(1), 1-21. https://doi.org/10.32872/spb.4395

Visit the Social Psychological Bulletin's website and follow the journal on Twitter.

Corresponding author:

Prof. Krystyna Skarzynska
Email: kskarzyn@swps.edu.pl

Additional information:

About Social Psychological Bulletin (SPB):

Social Psychological Bulletin (Psychologia Spoleczna) is an open-access quarterly journal that publishes original empirical research, theoretical review papers, scientific debates, and methodological contributions in the field of basic and applied social psychology. SPB actively promotes standards of Open Science, supports an integrative approach to all aspects of social psychological science and is committed to discussing timely social issues of high importance.

About PsychOpen:

Offered by Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information (ZPID), PsychOpen is an online platform for publishing primary scientific contributions in psychology. All publications in PsychOpen are accessible free of charge (open access). Journals published on PsychOpen GOLD must meet clearly defined quality standards such as peer review of the submitted articles, an international editorial board, and English-language metadata. PsychOpen supports the psychological research community in their specific communication needs (community-based publishing). Publication projects are developed within the community and are supported by the community. In this context, emphasis is placed on European psychology.

About Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information:

The Leibniz Institute for Psychology Information (ZPID) is the supra-regional scientific research support organization for psychology in German-speaking countries. It supports the entire scientific work process from gathering ideas and researching literature to documenting research, archiving data and publishing the results, based on an ideal-type research cycle. It is committed to the idea of open science and sees itself as a public open science institute for psychology.

 

Parallel universes cross in Flatland

Physicists at the University of Bath in the UK observe modified energy landscapes at the intersection of 2D materials.

UNIVERSITY OF BATH

Research News

 

IMAGE: 2D SHEETS INTERSECT AND TWIST ON TOP OF EACH OTHER, MODIFYING THE ENERGY LANDSCAPE OF THE MATERIALS view more 

CREDIT: VENTSISLAV VALEV

In 1884, Edwin Abbott wrote the novel Flatland: A Romance in Many Dimensions as a satire of Victorian hierarchy. He imagined a world that existed only in two dimensions, where the beings are 2D geometric figures. The physics of such a world is somewhat akin to that of modern 2D materials, such as graphene and transition metal dichalcogenides, which include tungsten disulfide (WS2), tungsten diselenide (WSe2), molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and molybdenum diselenide (MoSe2).

Modern 2D materials consist of single-atom layers, where electrons can move in two dimensions but their motion in the third dimension is restricted. Due to this 'squeeze', 2D materials have enhanced optical and electronic properties that show great promise as next-generation, ultrathin devices in the fields of energy, communications, imaging and quantum computing, among others.

Typically, for all these applications, the 2D materials are envisioned in flat-lying arrangements. Unfortunately, however, the strength of these materials is also their greatest weakness - they are extremely thin. This means that when they are illuminated, light can interact with them only over a tiny thickness, which limits their usefulness. To overcome this shortcoming, researchers are starting to look for new ways to fold the 2D materials into complex 3D shapes.

In our 3D universe, 2D materials can be arranged on top of each other. To extend the Flatland metaphor, such an arrangement would quite literally represent parallel worlds inhabited by people who are destined to never meet.

Now, scientists from the Department of Physics at the University of Bath in the UK have found a way to arrange 2D sheets of WS2 (previously created in their lab) into a 3D configuration, resulting in an energy landscape that is strongly modified when compared to that of the flat-laying WS2 sheets. This particular 3D arrangement is known as a 'nanomesh': a webbed network of densely-packed, randomly distributed stacks, containing twisted and/or fused WS2 sheets.

Modifications of this kind in Flatland would allow people to step into each other's worlds. "We didn't set out to distress the inhabitants of Flatland," said Professor Ventsislav Valev who led the research, "But because of the many defects that we nanoengineered in the 2D materials, these hypothetical inhabitants would find their world quite strange indeed.

"First, our WS2 sheets have finite dimensions with irregular edges, so their world would have a strangely shaped end. Also, some of the sulphur atoms have been replaced by oxygen, which would feel just wrong to any inhabitant. Most importantly, our sheets intersect and fuse together, and even twist on top of each other, which modifies the energy landscape of the materials. For the Flatlanders, such an effect would look like the laws of the universe had suddenly changed across their entire landscape."

Dr Adelina Ilie, who developed the new material together with her former PhD student and post-doc Zichen Liu, said: "The modified energy landscape is a key point for our study. It is proof that assembling 2D materials into a 3D arrangement does not just result in 'thicker' 2D materials - it produces entirely new materials. Our nanomesh is technologically simple to produce, and it offers tunable material properties to meet the demands of future applications."

Professor Valev added: "The nanomesh has very strong nonlinear optical properties - it efficiently converts one laser colour into another over a broad palette of colours. Our next goal is to use it on Si waveguides for developing quantum optical communications."

PhD student Alexander Murphy, also involved in the research, said: "In order to reveal the modified energy landscape, we devised new characterisation methods and I look forward to applying these to other materials. Who knows what else we could discover?"

Flatland : a romance of many dimensions : Abbott, Edwin Abbott, 1838-1926 : Free Download, Borrow, and Streaming : Internet Archive

 

Study indicates São Tomé island has two species of caecilians found nowhere else on Earth

Research adds evidence to century-long scientific debate and reveals how volcanic activity may have driven divergence of the limbless amphibians

CALIFORNIA ACADEMY OF SCIENCES

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IMAGE: THE CAECILIANS FOUND ON THE SOUTHERN PART OF THE ISLAND ARE TYPICALLY YELLOW WITH BROWN SPLOTCHES. view more 

CREDIT: © ANDREW STANBRIDGE

SAN FRANCISCO, CA (May 10, 2021) -- The Gulf of Guinea islands harbor an abundance of species found nowhere else on Earth. But for over 100 years, scientists have wondered whether or not a population of limbless, burrowing amphibians--known as caecilians--found on one of the islands is a single or multiple species. Now, a team of researchers from the California Academy of Sciences and the Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History has contributed the strongest evidence to date that there is not one, but two different species of caecilians on São Tomé island. Their findings, published today in Molecular Ecology, also suggest that volcanic activity may have led to the divergence of the species.

"To judge whether one species is in fact composed of multiple lineages, scientists have to build a case," says senior author and Academy Curator of Herpetology Rayna Bell. "By conducting a population level genomic study of these amphibians across the entire island, we are adding a crucial line of evidence that the São Tomé caecilian is actually two unique species."

Initially described by Portuguese scientists during colonial times, the São Tomé caecilians were later split into two distinct species based on their variation in color and location on the island--solid lemon yellow in the north and yellow with brown splotches to the south. Since then, subsequent research has bounced back and forth, grouping the species together then separating them out again, based on the best available evidence.

Then, in 2014, a study by former Academy Curator of Herpetology Robert Drewes and graduate student Ricka Stoelting using mitochondrial DNA indicated that not only were there likely two unique species, but they might be interbreeding. Bell and her colleagues build upon those previous findings by sampling 85 caecilians from 21 locations across the island for genome-wide genetic markers that more accurately confirm the presence--and interbreeding--of the two species.

"That earlier study was the first clue towards unraveling the mystery of the São Tomé caecilians," Bell says. "Our study provides further proof of the presence of two separate, interbreeding species and quantifies how much overlap--or hybridization--is occurring between them."

Once the research team confirmed the existence of two different but interbreeding species, they started to work backward through time to try to determine how the species diverged.

"It's pretty remarkable that there are two unique species on such a small island," says Academy collections manager and study co-author Lauren Scheinberg. "It really makes you wonder how natural selection is acting to drive speciation."

Through their analysis, the researchers found that the two species diverged around 300,000 years ago, a time period that coincides with a burst of volcanic activity on the island. The researchers suggest that lava flows during this period may have led to the speciation of the caecilians by dividing the island into a patchwork of smaller habitats with unique environmental pressures. As the lava flows eroded, resulting in suitable habitat for caecilians, the two species came back into contact and started to hybridize, obscuring the evidence of their separation.

"These findings are an important reminder that islands are not static," Bell says. "Even though they can be small and isolated, they are dynamic systems that are actively accumulating new species. It's also an important consideration for the conservation of São Tomé caecilians to know that we have two, genetically and morphologically unique species."

Though the picture of their past is becoming clearer, there is still much to learn about these enigmatic amphibians. For example, while most caecilians spend a majority of their time underground, the São Tomé caecilians can be readily found on the forest floor, raising questions about how the bright yellow amphibians avoid predation.

While one century-long mystery is nearing a resolution, it seems more are taking its place. But Bell is looking forward to the challenge. "These are perhaps the most well-studied caecilians on Earth because of their accessibility and how long ago they were described to science. Yet there is still so much to learn about them, from their mating behavior to how they deter predators," Bell says. "For a biologist, what could be more exciting than that?"

CAPTION

The Saõ Tomé caecilian from the northern part of the island is typically solid yellow in coloration.

CREDIT

© Andrew Stanbridge

About Research at the California Academy of Sciences

The Institute for Biodiversity Science and Sustainability at the California Academy of Sciences is at the forefront of efforts to understand two of the most important topics of our time: the nature and sustainability of life on Earth. Based in San Francisco, the Institute is home to more than 100 world-class scientists, state-of-the-art facilities, and nearly 46 million scientific specimens from around the world. The Institute also leverages the expertise and efforts of more than 100 international Associates and 450 distinguished Fellows. Through expeditions around the globe, investigations in the lab, and analysis of vast biological datasets, the Institute's scientists work to understand the evolution and interconnectedness of organisms and ecosystems, the threats they face around the world, and the most effective strategies for sustaining them into the future. Through innovative partnerships and public engagement initiatives, they also guide critical sustainability and conservation decisions worldwide, inspire and mentor the next generation of scientists, and foster responsible stewardship of our planet.

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A researcher holds a Saõ Tomé caecilian during a collection expedition.

CREDIT

© Andrew Stanbridge

 

Bronze Age migrations changed societal organization and genomic landscape in Italy

ESTONIAN RESEARCH COUNCIL

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IMAGE: EXCAVATION SITE GROTTA LA SASSA - ANGELICA FERRACCI view more 

CREDIT: UNIVERSITY OF TARTU

A new study in Current Biology from the Institute of Genomics of the University of Tartu, Estonia has shed light on the genetic prehistory of populations in modern day Italy through the analysis of ancient human individuals during the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age transition around 4,000 years ago. The genomic analysis of ancient samples enabled researchers from Estonia, Italy, and the UK to date the arrival of the Steppe-related ancestry component to 3,600 years ago in Central Italy, also finding changes in burial practice and kinship structure during this transition.

In the last years, the genetic history of ancient individuals has been extensively studied focusing on movements and settlements of humans in different areas of Eurasia. However, the genetic history of individuals from the Italian Peninsula during the Chalcolithic/Bronze Age transition, around 4,000 years ago, was still unexplored. Researchers from the Institute of Genomics of the University of Tartu in collaboration with universities in Italy and the UK have collected human remains from the Italian Peninsula and generated ancient genomes in the aDNA laboratory at the University of Tartu, Estonia.

"For the study, we extracted ancient DNA of 50 individuals from four archaeological sites located in Northeastern and Central Italy dated to Chalcolithic, Early Bronze Age, and Bronze Age. We were able to generate the first genome-wide shotgun data of ancient Italians dated to the Bronze Age period and study the arrival of the Steppe-related ancestry component in the Italian Peninsula. This genetic component, ultimately tracing its origin in the Pontic-Caspian Steppe, a steppeland located between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, and very common in Central and Northern Europe. It is also presented in the Bronze Age Italian individuals which we scrutinised and suggesting that populations in the South of the Alps experienced a similar evolution," said the lead author of the work Tina Saupe, from the Institute of Genomics.

"For the genetic analysis, we used a reference dataset including individuals from the Italian Peninsula, Sicily, and Sardinia dated from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. We decided to study the new genomes altogether with available data to have a deeper insight into the genetic changes and demography of this important transition, but also to understand its impact in the following centuries" added co-author Francesco Montinaro from the same institution and from the University of Bari, Italy. Researchers found that samples dated to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic from the Italian Peninsula are more similar to Early Neolithic farmers in Eastern Europe and Anatolian farmers than to farmers from Western Europe, which opens the possibility of different histories for the two Neolithic groups in Europe.

"Because of the geographical distribution of the archaeological sites of published and newly generated genomes, we were able to date the arrival of the Steppe-related ancestry component to at least ~4,000 years ago in Northern Italy and ~3,600 years ago in Central Italy. We did not find the component in individuals dated to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic, but in individuals dated to the Early Bronze Age and increasing through time in the individuals dated to the Bronze Age," pointed out by Luca Pagani, Associate Professor at the Institute of Genomics and University of Padova and co-senior author of this work.

"In addition, we were able to find a shift in burial practice correlated with the change of relatedness between the individuals in two of the sites, but we did not find any changes in the phenotypes of ancient Italians during the transition," said Christiana L. Scheib, the aDNA research group leader at the Institute of Genomics and corresponding author.

"It was remarkable to see how this project developed over time and how the interpretation of the results changed once samples from Central Italy were added thanks to the collaboration with the universities of Oxford (UK), Durham (UK), Groningen (Netherlands) and Rome "Tor Vergata" (Italy) "said Cristian Capelli (University of Parma), co-senior author of this study.

"These results of this study have shown that the genetic profile of ancient individuals from the Italian Peninsula changed with the movement and settlement of humans since the Neolithic. This knowledge enlightens us on our genetic origin and enables plans for further studies including a denser sampling of individuals dated to the Iron Age and Roman empire," concluded Scheib.

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Map - Eugenio Israel Chávez Barreto

Sharks in protected area attract illegal fishers

UNIVERSITY OF EXETER

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IMAGE: SHARKS FOR SALE IN A SRI LANKAN FISH MARKET view more 

CREDIT: CLAIRE COLLINS

Thousands of sharks have been illegally caught in a Marine Protected Area (MPA) in the Indian Ocean, new research shows.

The MPA was created in 2010 around the Chagos Archipelago, also known as the British Indian Ocean Territory (BIOT), banning all fishing there.

The new study examined information on illegal fishing in the MPA - a vast (640,000 km²/250,000 mi2) area containing pristine and remote reefs.

Enforcement data suggests more than 14,000 sharks were caught in the MPA from 2010-20, but discussions with fishers in the region suggest the true number was "considerably higher".

The study was carried out by the University of Exeter and ZSL (Zoological Society of London), Oceanswell and MRAG Ltd.

"Enforcement of MPA rules in a large, remote area such as this is extremely difficult," said lead author Claire Collins, of the University of Exeter.

"Our findings highlight the threat of illegal fishing to sharks in the BIOT MPA, which is home to critically endangered species such as the oceanic whitetip and scalloped hammerhead.

"Fishers often target reef areas, where many of the sharks are juveniles, and taking sharks at this life stage could be especially damaging to species numbers.

"However, it's important to note that - despite evidence of shark fishing - the MPA still provides a vital refuge in the Indian Ocean, and shark numbers there are still much higher than most other places.

"Many shark species in this region are under intense pressure from fishing.

"Following the recent news that the Maldives was considering lifting its shark-fishing ban, the importance of large areas within the Indian Ocean where shark fishing is banned was brought to everyone's attention.

"This study emphasises the need to ensure that sharks within these important areas are fully protected."

As part of the study, Oceanswell researchers carried out interviews and ran focus groups with fishers in two Sri Lankan communities previously associated with illegal fishing in the BIOT MPA.

Fishers told the researchers that vessels often fished in the MPA without being detected, providing "clear evidence that total extraction was considerably higher" than the estimate of 14,340 based on detected vessels, the study says.

"It is crucial to work with fishing communities to understand where, when and why people fish illegally - and how we can improve deterrence," said final author Tom B Letessier.

"For example, we found fishers had very different ideas of the fines they could face, and some felt there were very unlikely to be caught - so improving awareness of the sanctions, in addition to increasing the probability of being caught, could be beneficial."

Efforts are under way to improve enforcement in the MPA, including by increased use of satellite tracking of vessels and ensuring enforcement is responsive to the threat of illegal fishing.

This study highlights the value of interacting with fishers themselves to obtain information about the pressures they are facing and what motivates their behaviours.

Of the 188 vessels investigated by the BIOT MPA patrol boat from 2010-20, 126 were suspected of illegal fishing - and 97% of these targeted sharks.

More than three quarters of suspected vessels were from Sri Lanka, but a growing minority came from India - and these tended to be larger and could therefore take many more sharks.

"The threats to a large MPA like this one are constantly changing, so management of the MPA has to adapt too," Collins said.

The study was funded by grant ID is BPMS 2017-12 from the Bertarelli foundation, as part of the Bertarelli Programme of Marine Science.

The paper, published in the journal Frontiers in Marine Science, is entitled: "Understanding persistent non-compliance in a remote, large-scale marine protected area."

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Research results challenge a decades-old mechanism of how we hear sounds

LINKÖPING UNIVERSITY

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IMAGE: PIERRE HAKIZIMANA, PRINCIPAL RESEARCH ENGINEER AT LINKÖPING UNIVERSITY view more 

CREDIT: SANNA HEDIN

Researchers at Linköping University, Sweden, have made several discoveries on the functioning mechanisms of the inner hair cells of the ear, which convert sounds into nerve signals that are processed in the brain. The results, presented in the scientific journal Nature Communications, challenge the current picture of the anatomical organisation and workings of the hearing organ, which has prevailed for decades. A deeper understanding of how the hair cells are stimulated by sound is important for such matters as the optimisation of hearing aids and cochlear implants for people with hearing loss.

In order to hear sounds, we must convert sound waves, which are compressions and decompressions of air, into electrical nerve signals that are transmitted to the brain. This conversion takes place in the part of the inner ear known as the cochlea, due to its shape, which is reminiscent of a snail shell. The cochlear duct houses the hearing organ, with many hair cells that are divided into outer and inner hair cells. The outer hair cells amplify sound vibrations, which enables us to hear faint sounds and perceive the various frequencies in human speech better. The inner hair cells convert the sound vibrations into nerve signals. In the current study, the researchers have investigated how the conversion takes place. It is, namely, still unclear how the inner hair cells are stimulated by sound vibrations in order to produce nerve signals.

It has long been known that the outer hair cells are connected to a membrane that rests on top of them. The outer hair cells have hair-like protrusions known as stereocilia that are bent and activated when sound causes the membrane and the hearing organ to vibrate. However, the current view is that the stereocilia of the inner hair cells are not in contact with this membrane, which is known as the tectorial membrane, and that they are stimulated by sounds by a completely different mechanism. It is this model that the new study challenges.

The relationship between the hair cells and the tectorial membrane has been studied in detail by electron microscopy since the 1950s. But it is extremely difficult to investigate how this gelatinous membrane functions, since it shrinks as soon as it is removed from the ear. This makes it extremely difficult to preserve the relationship between the inner hair cells and the tectorial membrane. In addition, this membrane is transparent, and has therefore been essentially invisible. Until now. The LiU researchers noticed that the tectorial membrane reflected green light. This discovery made it possible to visualise the tectorial membrane by microscope.

"We cannot see any gap between the tectorial membrane and the hair cells. In contrast, the stereocilia on both outer and inner hair cells are completely embedded in the tectorial membrane. Our results are incompatible with the generally accepted idea that only the outer hair cells are in contact with the tectorial membrane", says Pierre Hakizimana, principal research engineer at the Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences at Linköping University, and principal author of the article.

Pierre Hakizimana and his colleagues have studied the inner ear of guinea pigs, which is very similar to that of humans. When the researchers investigated the relationship between the membrane and the hair cells in more detail, they made a further discovery.

"We found calcium ducts with an appearance that we've never seen before. These calcium ducts span the tectorial membrane and connect to the stereocilia of both the inner and the outer hair cells", says Pierre Hakizimana.

The research group, led by Professor Anders Fridberger, has previously discovered that the tectorial membrane functions as a reservoir for calcium ions, which are needed for the hair cells to convert the sound-evoked vibrations into nerve signals. The researchers followed the motion of the calcium ions in the ducts, and their results suggest that the calcium ions flow through the ducts to the hair cells. This may explain how the hair cells obtain the large amounts of calcium ions needed for their function. The study has also shown that the stereocilia on the inner and outer hair cells are bent by the tectorial membrane in similar ways. The next step of the research will be to understand in more detail how the calcium ions are transported, and identify the protein or proteins that make up the newly discovered calcium ducts.

"Our results allow us to describe a mechanism for how hearing functions, that is incompatible with the model that has been accepted for more than fifty years. The classic illustrations in the textbooks showing the hearing organ and how it functions must be updated. The mathematical models used in research to study hearing should also be updated to include these new findings", says Pierre Hakizimana.

New information about how our hearing functions may in the long term be important for the development of cochlear implants. These are hearing aids that are inserted into the cochlea and which use electrical stimulation to make it possible for children and adults with hearing loss to perceive sounds.

"Cochlear implants are an amazing solution for treating hearing loss, but they can be improved. A deeper understanding of how the inner hair cells are stimulated by sounds is important to optimise how cochlear implants stimulate the auditory nerve", says Pierre Hakizimana.

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The study has received financial support from the Tysta Skolan Foundation, the Swedish Research Council, and the National Institutes of Health in the US.

The article: "Inner hair cell stereocilia are embedded in the tectorial membrane", Pierre Hakizimana and Anders Fridberger, (2021), Nature Communications, published online on May 10, 2021, doi: 10.1038/s41467-021-22870-1 https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-021-22870-1