It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Wednesday, July 28, 2021
Active forest management linked to reduced tick populations
University of Maine graduate student Christine Conte in 2018 counting small mammals and tick attachments for a study of tick populations in managed and unmanaged forest plots. Credit: Allison Gardner
Active management of forests, including timber harvesting to meet silvicultural objectives, can influence the transmission dynamics of tick-borne diseases such as Lyme, anaplasmosis and babesiosis, according to a new study by a team of University of Maine researchers.
Christine Conte, an ecology and environmental sciences student who earned a master's degree from UMaine in 2019, led the study of blackleggedtick populationsin recently harvested and unharvestedforestplots to determine the impact of forest management on nymphal tick abundance and infection prevalence. The study was conducted in Hancock County, Maine on privately owned small woodlots and land trust properties.
Using trail camera videography to capture large mammal visits to the study plots, live small mammal trapping and tick counts, vegetation surveys and off-host tick collection methods, Conte, and faculty members Allison Gardner and Jessica Leahy gathered data from forest plots harvested in the last five years and those unharvested for at least 20 years.
The researchers found that recently harvested forest plots hosted fewer small mammals and blacklegged tick nymphs, and reduced densities of adult blacklegged ticks as compared to the unmanaged control plots. Microclimate analysis revealed significantly higher temperature and vapor pressure deficits (VPDs) in the recently harvested parcels, conditions which may limit tick-host interactions, and reduce tick longevity and questing behaviors.
A subset of blacklegged ticks collected from all sites in year one of the two-year study were tested for the pathogens Borrelia burgdorferi, Anaplasma phagocytophilum and Babesia microti. Active forest management, which was shown to limit nymphal tick populations and the density of adult ticks, reduce host density to divert blood meals away from pathogen competent hosts, and create environmental conditions that reduce tick viability, did not appear to impact infection prevalence among blacklegged tick nymphs.
Twenty percent of blacklegged ticks tested positive for B. burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease; 2% were positive for A. phagocytophilum, which causes human granulocytic anaplasmosis; and 3% were positive for B. microti (human babesiosis). Results suggest that overall, the density of nymphs rather than nymphal infection prevalence drives entomological risk of infection with tick-borne disease in this system.
The team's findings, published in the journal EcoHealth, suggest that managing forests to support forest health may also provide a sustainable method of reducing the risk of exposure to pathogens and zoonotic diseases via biotic and abiotic tick control mechanisms that impact habitat quality. Ongoing research efforts, including the Maine Forest Tick Survey, seek to build upon these findings.
More information: Christine E. Conte et al, Active Forest Management Reduces Blacklegged Tick and Tick-Borne Pathogen Exposure Risk, EcoHealth (2021). DOI: 10.1007/s10393-021-01531-1
Creeks, rivers and lakes that are fed by melting snow across the U.S. West are already running low as of mid-July 2021, much to the worry of farmers, biologists and snow hydrologists like me. This is not surprising in California, where snow levels over the previous winter were well below normal. But it is also true across Colorado and the Rocky Mountains, which in general received a normal amount of snow. You'd think if there was normal amount of snow you'd have plenty of water downstream, right?
Of course, a dry winter will result in meager flows in spring and summer. But there are other reasons snow from the mountains won't reach a river below. One growing area of research is exploring how droughts can lead to chronically dry soil that sucks up more water than normal. This water also refills the groundwater below.
But another less studied way moisture can be lost is by evaporating straight into the atmosphere. Just as the amount of snow varies each year, so too does the loss of water to the air. Under the right conditions, more snow can disappear into the air than melts into rivers. But how snowfall and loss of moisture into the air itself relate to water levels in rivers and lakes is an important and not well understood part of the water cycle, particularly in drought years.
Losing moisture to the air
There are two ways moisture can be lost to the atmosphere before it reaches a creek or river.
Under most conditions, frozen carbon dioxide, otherwise known as dry ice, doesn’t melt, but jumps straight from a solid to a gas when it is warmed up.
The first is through evaporation. When water absorbs enough energy from the Sun, the water molecules will change into a gas called water vapor. This floating water vapor is then stored in the air. Most of this evaporation happens from the surface of lakes, from water in the soil or as snow melts and the water flows over rocks or other surfaces.
Another way moisture can be lost to the atmosphere is one you might be less familiar with: sublimation. Sublimation is when a solid turns directly into a gas—think of dry ice. The same can happen to water when snow or ice turns directly into water vapor. When the air is colder than freezing, sublimation happens when molecules of ice and snow absorb so much energy that they skip the liquid form and jump straight to a gas.
A number of atmospheric conditions can lead to increased evaporation and sublimation and eventually, less water making it to creeks and streams. Dry air can absorb more moisture than moist air and pull more moisture from the ground into the atmosphere. High winds can also blow moisture into the air and away from the area where it initially fell. And finally, the warmer air is and more Sun that shines, the more energy is available for snow or water to change to vapor. When you get combinations of these factors—like warm, dry winds in the Rockies called Chinook winds—evaporation and sublimation can happen quite fast. On a dry, windy day, up to around two inches of snow can sublimate into the atmosphere. That translates to about one swimming pool of water for each football field-sized area of snow.
Sublimation is mysterious
It is relatively easy to measure how much water is flowing through a river or in a lake. And using satellites and snow surveys, hydrologists can get decent estimates of how much snow is on a mountain range. Measuring evaporation, and especially sublimation, is much harder to do.
Snow survey sites, like the one seen here in Montana, can help scientists measure snowpack, but most sublimation happens above the treeline, a zone for which there is little data. Credit: USDA NRCS Montana/WikimediaCommons
When scientists have been able to measure and estimate sublimation, they have measured moisture losses that range from a few percent to more than half of the total snowfall, depending on the climate and where you are. And even in one spot, sublimation can vary a lot year to year depending on snow and weather.
When moisture is lost into the atmosphere, it will fall to the surface as rain or snow eventually. But that could be on the other side of the Earth and is not helpful to drought-stricken areas.
Important knowledge
It is hard to say how important loss of moisture to the atmosphere is to the total water cycle in any given mountain range. Automated snow monitoring systems—especially at high elevations above the treeline—can help researchers better understand what is happening to the snow and the conditions that cause losses to the atmosphere.
The amount of water in rivers—and when that water appears—influences agriculture, ecosystems and how people live. When there is a water shortage, problems occur. With climate change leading to more droughts and variable weather, filling a knowledge gap of the water cycle like the one around sublimation is important.
Dr Jack Garnett on the research expedition in the Arctic. Credit: Christian Morel
Known as 'forever' chemicals due to the fact they do not break down in the environment, poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are used in a wide range of products and processes from fire proofing to stain resistant surfaces.
The Lancaster University study has found them in the surface seawater close to melting Arctic ice floes at concentrations of up to two times higher than levels observed in the North Sea, even though the region of the Barents Sea under investigation was thousands of kilometers from populated parts of Europe.
The research has shown these chemicals have traveled not by sea, but through the atmosphere, where they accumulate in Arctic sea ice. Because Arctic ice is melting more quickly than before, these harmful chemicals are efficiently released into surrounding seawater resulting in some very high concentrations.
Lancaster's Dr. Jack Garnett and Professor Crispin Halsall along with colleagues from HZG, Germany, have been investigating the long range transport and deposition of PFAS to the Arctic as part of EISPAC—a project jointly funded by UK's NERC and Germany's BMBF as part of the Changing Arctic Ocean program.
PFAS comprise of a very large number of chemicals that have myriad uses, including processing aids in the manufacture of fluoropolymers like Teflon, stain and water repellents in food packaging, textiles and clothing, as well as use in firefighting foams.
One particular group of these chemicals—the perfluoroalkyl acids (PFAAs) - are extremely stable and do not degrade in the environment but can bioaccumulate and are known to be toxic to humans and wildlife.
PFAAs can enter the food chain due to their mobility in the environment and protein-binding characteristics. The longer carbon chain compounds of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) and perfluorooctane sulfonic acid (PFOS) are generally associated with liver damage in mammals, with developmental exposure to PFOA adversely affecting fetal growth in humans and other mammals alike.
Dr. Jack Garnett discovered an unusual phenomenon whereby PFAAs present in the atmosphere are deposited with snowfall onto the surface of ice floes where they can eventually accumulate within the sea ice. Jack made this observation while taking ice and water samples as part of a scientific expedition under the Norwegian Nansen Legacy project (arvenetternansen.com/).
Undertaking both salinity and stable isotope analysis of snow, ice and seawater, he was able to determine what contribution of the water locked in snow and ice came from the atmosphere and what contribution arose from seawater. This way it was possible to assess the role that atmospheric transport from far away regions had on the presence of these chemicals in the ice.
The PFAA present in the atmospheric component was much higher than the seawater component, confirming that long range transport and deposition from the atmosphere is the main source of these chemicals to the remote Arctic rather than 'recycling' of older stocks of these pollutants present in ocean waters.
Furthermore, the team's studies conducted in a sea ice facility at the University of East Anglia, found that the presence of brine (highly saline water) in young ice serves to enrich contaminants like PFAS in different layers within the sea ice. PFAS like other organic pollutants, generally reside in the brine rather than the solid ice matrix itself. As the ice ages the brine becomes more concentrated resulting in an enrichment of these pollutants into focused areas within the ice pack.
Prolonged periods of thaw, particularly when the ice floes are still covered in snow, results in the re-mobilization of the ice brine and also the interaction of snow meltwater with the brine. This can result in marked release of PFAAs into the underlying seawater.
Brine channels on the underside of ice serve as unique habitats for organisms at the base of the marine foodweb, and, as a consequence, they will be exposed to high levels of PFAAs released with brine drainage and meltwater from the thawing ice pack.
Prof Halsall a co-author of the recent Arctic Monitoring Assessment Program (AMAP) report on "POPs and Chemicals of Emerging Arctic Concern: The Influence of Climate Change," says that we have an unfortunate situation where the Arctic Ocean is now dominated by one-year ice at the expense of multi-year ice due to global warming. Meaning that the majority of the ice in the Arctic has formed the previous winter, rather than over many years.
This one-year ice contains a lot of mobile brine that interacts with the overlying snowpack and can serve to concentrate pollutants like PFAS which are usually found at very low levels.
Unfortunately, with earlier and more erratic thaw events, this can lead to the rapid release of the stored chemicals resulting in high concentrations in the waters surrounding the ice floes.
It is only through this type of investigative science that we can understand the dynamics of pollutant behavior and identify key hazards, particularly those related to climate change.
In turn this can drive international legislation so that chemicals that exhibit this type of behavior are banned
More information: Jack Garnett et al, Investigating the Uptake and Fate of Poly- and Perfluoroalkylated Substances (PFAS) in Sea Ice Using an Experimental Sea Ice Chamber, Environmental Science & Technology (2021). DOI: 10.1021/acs.est.1c01645
Percentages of U.S. vs. Canadian dads who scored in the top 40% for various parenting measures. Sample involved 5,000 North American fathers. Credit: Chart: The Conversation/CC-BY-ND Source: Kevin Shafer, Brigham Young University
Thirty-five years ago, Canadian and American dads were doing a similar amount of child rearing, relative to mothers. Surveys from the mid 1980s showed that Canadian men spent 38% of the time that Canadian women spent on child care, and American men spent 35% of the time that American women spent on child care.
Today, there are significant gaps in fathering between Canadians and Americans. Canadian dadsspend significantly more timetaking care of their children than theirAmerican counterparts. For example, Canadianfathersspend an average of 14 hours onchild careeach week, while American fathers average about 8 hours a week.
As a sociologist and Canadian studies scholar, I am interested in how social policies affect fatherhood in different countries. I collected data on more than 5,000 men in the two nations from 2016 to 2018 for my upcoming book on the similarities and differences between American and Canadian dads. This data looked at how dads interacted with their children—whether they acted warmly and affectionately, if they provided emotional support and how they disciplined their children.
My data shows Canadian dads were much more likely to show warmth, provide emotional support, engage in caregiving and use positive discipline. In fact, American dads outperformed their Canadian counterparts on only one of the survey measures—the use of spanking and other harsh disciplinary tactics.
Why have Canadian fathers pulled ahead of American fathers in caring for and showing affection toward their children? I believe the answer lies, in part, with four types of social policies in Canada that help fathers be more engaged at home.
1. Family leave
When it comes to family policy, there are major differences between the U.S. and Canada.
Canada has guaranteed paid family leave for mothers and fathers. As part of their employment insurance program, Canadian parents get 35 weeks of shared paid benefits, paid at 55% of regular pay. On top of that, fathers get five exclusive weeks of leave.
Meanwhile, the U.S. is the only rich nation in the world that doesn't guarantee maternity leave, and one of three rich countries—along with Oman and the United Arab Emirates—without a paternity leave option.
Stagnant incomes, high levels of economic inequality and financial instability have led many American men to work long hours. In my survey, a third of the American respondents work 50 hours or more a week, compared to just one-tenth of Canadian participants.
Financial anxieties permeate parenting in the U.S. The increase in intensive parenting—parents who try to build impeccable resumes for their kids, filled with extracurricular activities, advanced courses and awards—is an effort by middle-income families to keep up with the parenting practices of the well-off.
The Canada Child Benefit further alleviates financial anxiety for parents. Unlike child tax credits in the U.S., which were traditionally paid with tax returns, Canada delivers its tax credit in monthly payments to low- and middle-income families with children. The program has cut child poverty by 40% since its introduction in 2017. The U.S. just rolled out a similar temporary program in July 2021.
3. Gender inequality
Fathers tend to be more involved parents in nations with higher levels of gender equality. When women are engaged in the political and economic spheres, fathers provide more physical care to children, are warmer and more emotionally supportive parents, and use less harsh discipline. This is likely caused by more explicit and enforceable expectations about equal partnership between co-parents.
Canada is a more gender-equal country than the U.S. In 2019, the United Nations listed Canada as the 19th most egalitarian nation in the world. The U.S. was 46th. Canada outpaced the U.S. on measures of female health, political power, education and economic empowerment. Solidifying the expectation that dads be highly involved co-parents, these greater levels of gender equality may be a significant reason Canadian fathers outperform their American counterparts.
4. Health care
Even policies that seemingly have little to do with parenting have, in reality, a major impact on how men interact with their children. This includes Canada's single-payer, provincially administered, universal health care system.
Analyses in my forthcoming book, for example, show that poor physical health has much weaker negative effects on men's parenting in Canada than in the U.S. This suggests that the U.S. health care system's high medical costs, coupled with bureaucratic and systemic inefficiencies, drain individuals' time, energy and resources—making fathering more difficult. The problem is compounded when children have health issues as well.
As society emerges from the COVID-19 pandemic, data suggests that a more comprehensive family policy would benefit American fathers, mothers and children. Doing so can ease the especially difficult burdens mothers face and help remove structural barriers that make it hard for fathers to be highly involved and engaged parents. Canada may provide the United States with a useful example on how to implement supportive family policies.
This spotted gar in the Louisiana Bayou is an ancient and native fish species. Credit: Solomon David / Nicholls State University
From art to religion to land use, much of what is deemed valuable in the United States was shaped centuries ago by the white male perspective. Fish, it turns out, are no exception.
A study published inFisheries Magazine, a journal of the American Fisheries Society, explores how colonialist attitudes toward native fishes were rooted in elements of racism and sexism. It describes how those attitudes continue to shapefisheriesmanagement today, often to the detriment of native fishes.
The study, led by the University of California, Davis, with Nicholls State University and a national team of fisheries researchers, found that nearly all states have policies that encourage overfishing native species. The study maintains that the term "rough fish" is pejorative and degrading to native fish.
"That has bothered me for a long time," said lead author Andrew Rypel, co-director of the Center for Watershed Sciences and the Peter B. Moyle and California Trout Chair in Coldwater Fish Ecology at UC Davis. He and others have been disturbed by images of "glory killings" of native fish that periodically pop up on the internet, as well as the lump categorization of less preferred species as "rough" or "trash" fish.
"When you trace the history of the problem, you quickly realize it's because the field was shaped by white men, excluding other points of view," Rypel said. "Sometimes you have to look at that history honestly to figure out what to do."
The study offers several recommendations for how anglers and fisheries managers can shift to a new paradigm that's more inclusive and beneficial to all fish and people.
A 'rough' start
The term "rough fish" dates to commercial riverboat fishing in the mid-late 1800s. Slow, heavy boats would lighten their loads by "rough-dressing"—removing organs but not fileting—less desirable species and discarding them. Biologists came to use the term to describe an unsubstantiated idea that native fish limit game fish species historically desired by Europeans. That attitude posed a major threat to many native species, which were killed in large numbers.
The alligator gar is the largest species in the gar family and can weigh up to 300 pounds. Once considered a “rough fish” and targeted for removal, the native species is experiencing renewed interest as a game fish. Credit: Solomon David, Nicholls State University
For instance, the alligator gar, an ancient species that can grow more than 8 feet long and weigh 300 pounds, was particularly persecuted in the past century. Called a "wolf among fishes," poison, dynamite and electrocution were used to greatly reduce its population. But now some fishers spend thousands of dollars for the opportunity to catch and release a giant gar. In 2021, Minnesota changed its statute to describe gar as a "game fish" rather than a "rough fish."
Co-author Solomon David has helped fuel renewed appreciation for gar and its relative, bowfin. He runs the GarLab at Nicholls State University in Louisiana, where he is an assistant professor. He said many native fishes, such as suckers and gars, have long been valued by Indigenous people and people of color.
"European colonists heavily influenced what fishes were more valuable, often the species that looked more similar to what they're used to," David said. "So trout, bass and salmon got their value while many other native species got pushed to the wayside."
Limited view
The study authors conducted a survey of fishing regulations across the United States to compare policies and bag limits on "rough fish" with those of largemouth bass, a ubiquitous sport fish.
"When I was a kid fishing, you might go to the river with a worm and catch all these interesting species," Rypel said. "The guidebook would just say 'rough fish, bag unlimited.' Not much has changed since I was kid."
The study found that no states had bag limits rivaling those for the bass. While black basses were often managed at five fish per day, regulations for most native fishes were extremely liberal. Forty-three states had unlimited bag limits for at least one native species. In the remaining states, bag limits were between 15 and 50 fish a day.
Freshwater ecosystems are threatened by pollution, habitat loss and climate change. Up to half of fish species globally are in some form of decline, and 83 percent of native California fish species are declining. Native fishes help ecosystems in many ways, including nutrient cycling and food chain support for other native species. The authors pointedly call for a "rewrite" in managing them.
Study co-author Solomon David of Nicholls State University holds a bowfin, another underdog of the native fish world. Credit: Solomon David
Recommendations
The study's recommendations for that rewrite include:
Stop saying "rough fish." They suggest "native fish" as a simple alternative.
Integrate Indigenous perspectives into fisheries management.
Revisit species bag limits. Lower bag limits for native species until the science is conducted to confirm they could be higher. The study takes particular note of the fast-growing bowfishing market that has contributed to removing native species.
Support science on native fishes. Game fish receive 11 times more research and management attention in American Fisheries Society journals than do "rough fish." To learn the true value of native fishes, more research is required.
Co-manage species that have co-evolved, such as freshwater mussels and fish that host them.
Correct misinformation and enhance science education through outreach and education for all ages.
"We have a chance to redirect fisheries science and conservation and expand it with respect for biodiversity and diversity," David said. "It's been a long time coming. Change is slow, but we have an opportunity here, and we should take advantage of it."
Additional co-authors include Parsa Saffarinia, Christine Parasek, Peter Moyle, Nann Fangue, Miranda Bell-Tilcock, and David Ayers of UC Davis; Caryn Vaughn of University of Oklahoma; Larry Nesper of University of Wisconsin-Madison; Katherine O'Reilly at University of Notre Dame; and Matthew L. Miller with The Nature Conservancy.
The study was funded by the Peter B. Moyle & California Trout Endowment for Coldwater Fish Conservation and by the California Agricultural Experimental Station of UC Davis.
More information: Andrew L. Rypel et al, Goodbye to "Rough Fish": Paradigm Shift in the Conservation of Native Fishes, Fisheries (2021). DOI: 10.1002/fsh.10660
Every year, 3.5 million metric tons of sodden diapers end up in landfills.
The superabsorbent material inside these diapers is made up of a matrix of polymers that expand once dampness hits them. Polymers are a long chain of repeating units, and in this case, the absorbent material in diapers is based on the polymer polyacrylic acid.
A University of Michigan team has developed a technique to untangle these absorbent polymers and recycle them into materials similar to the gooey adhesives used in sticky notes and bandages. Their results are published in Nature Communications.
Broadly, recycling can be grouped into mechanical recycling and chemical recycling.
"Mechanical recycling is what most people think about: You separate different plastics based on their identities, chop them up into small pieces, melt them and reuse them, which lowers the quality of the product," said U-M chemist Anne McNeil, corresponding author of the paper.
Mechanical recycling leads to lower quality materials because different companies' plastics are constructed differently: The polymers can be different chain lengths or altered with different additives and dyes.
"There's just so many problems, everything usually gets downcycled and ends up as carpet fibers or park benches," said McNeil, whose lab focuses on the chemical recycling of plastics. "Chemical recycling is this idea of using chemistry and chemical transformations to make a value-added material, or at least a material as valuable as the original."
The qualities that generally make plastics desirable, such as toughness and durability, are also responsible for their difficulty in recycling. In particular, polymers are difficult to break down because they are held together by stable bonds.
McNeil, professor of chemistry and macromolecular science and engineering, and Takunda Chazovachii, who recently graduated from U-M with his doctoral degree in polymer chemistry, worked with Procter & Gamble to develop a three-step process that turns superabsorbent polymers into a reusable material—in this case, adhesives. The method needed to be energy-efficient and able to be deployed on an industrial scale.
"Superabsorbent polymers are particularly difficult to recycle because they are designed to resist degradation and retain water permanently," Chazovachii said. "The superabsorbent polymers and adhesives are both derived from acrylic acid. This common origin inspired our recycling idea."
The polymers in superabsorbent materials look like a loosely woven fishing net, McNeil says, except instead of a honeycomb mesh, these polymers have a crosslink every 2,000 units, which is more than enough to create an insoluble network structure. To recycle these materials, the researchers needed to find a way to delink the network polymer into water soluble chains. Chazovachii found that when these polymers are heated either in the presence of acid or base, their crosslinks are broken.
The researchers also needed to determine whether these processes would be feasible on an industrial scale. Collaborators Madeline Somers, a research assistant at the U-M Graham Sustainability Institute, and Jose Alfaro, a researcher in the U-M School for Environment and Sustainability, performed a life cycle assessment. They learned that using this acid method to de-crosslink the polymers would exhibit a 10 times lower global warming potential, based on carbon dioxide release, and would require 10 times less energy than using a base-mediated approach.
Next, the researchers needed to shorten the long chains of polymers within the material to produce different types of adhesives. Chazovachii realized sonication—using tiny bursting air bubbles to break the polymer chains—could cut the chains in pieces without changing the chains' chemical properties.
"What we really liked about this method is that it is a mild and simple mechanical process," he said. "It breaks the polymer but leaves its building blocks, or acid groups, intact, so you can actually do other reactions with it."
Finally, Chazovachii, assisted by chemistry professor Paul Zimmerman and his student Michael Robo, converted acid groups on the polymer chains to ester groups. This changes the properties from water soluble to organic soluble, and they become tacky, like an adhesive. An extra bonus: The reagent used in this reaction, which also serves as the solvent, could be recycled and reused. After testing the adhesive properties, Chazovachii realized that sonication wasn't necessary to target one type of adhesives, further simplifying the approach.
Finally, the researchers needed to show that developing adhesives from recycled polymers was easier on the planet than making adhesives from petroleum—the typical route. Comparing their route to adhesives to the conventional one, the authors found that there is a 22% reduction in global warming potential and 25% reduction in energy for the route using recycled diapers.
The researchers say they work with diapers that are already clean—but companies that clean used diapers are cropping up, such as the Procter & Gamble affiliate FaterSMART. Additionally, Chazovachii says the conditions of the chemical recycling would kill any surviving bacteria.
McNeil says she hopes that synthetic chemists who work on making reactions for small molecules will turn their attention to polymers.
"This is just one paper, but I've moved most of my research in this direction because I think it's a really open opportunity for synthetic chemists to make an impact on a real-world problem," McNeil said. "I want more people to be thinking about this because the global plastics problem is so huge and chemists can play a really important role in reimagining what we do with this waste."
More information: P. Takunda Chazovachii et al, Giving superabsorbent polymers a second life as pressure-sensitive adhesives, Nature Communications (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-24488-9
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