To Prepare to Fight, China is Studying America's WWII Pacific Campaign

Tank landing ships disgorge cargo and troops on the beach at Iwo Jima (USN)

PUBLISHED MAR 22, 2023 

BY CIMSEC

 

[By Toshi Yoshihara]

The following article is adapted from a new report by Dr. Toshi Yoshihara at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments (CSBA), Chinese Lessons from the Pacific War: Implications for PLA Warfighting. It appears here courtesy of CIMSEC and may be found in its original form here.

Like all militaries, the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) studies other nations’ wars to understand the changing character of warfare. The PLA has dissected the Falklands War, the First Gulf War, the air campaign over Kosovo, the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq, and much else. It is no doubt scrutinizing the conflict in Ukraine. The PLA has drawn many lessons from these operations to improve its ability to fight and win future conflicts. Chinese writings about those lessons have, in turn, helped Western observers take better measure of the PLA’s priorities and preferences.

The PLA has even reached back more than eight decades to the Pacific War. Chinese military strategists have examined the origins, conduct, and termination of the ocean-spanning struggle between Imperial Japan and the United States. They have pored over the great battles at sea, rendering numerous judgments about what those engagements mean for the future of PLA warfighting. Chinese lessons from the Pacific War thus offer policymakers valuable insights about the PLA’s thinking and strategy.

The Pacific War’s Appeal to the PLA

In the past, the lopsided conflicts of the unipolar era in which American military might steamrolled third-rate opponents resonated with the PLA. Then, Chinese planners assumed that China would have to fight from a severely disadvantaged position against the United States. However, as the PLA continues its remarkable ascent, it expects to compete and fight with the U.S. armed forces on an equal footing. As such, the lessons from the Pacific War, which featured intense high-end combat between two peer militaries across an oceanic expanse, are increasingly salient to the PLA.

Moreover, the Pacific War stands out for its resemblance to a putative Sino-American conflict. Imperial Japan and the United States fought over an area where the PLA would likely collide with the U.S. military. Just as Japan sought to hold off its opponent in distant waters, the PLA would be attempting to keep its adversary at arm’s length from the mainland. In addition to its large fleet, Japan employed shore-based airpower to conduct maritime strikes. Now, China possesses an arsenal of land-based missiles and aircraft to hold surface combatants at risk, as well as modern fighting ships with increasing reach. 

For U.S. policymakers, Chinese histories of the Pacific War—and the lessons they impart— reveal much about the PLA’s views of strategy and war. These retrospectives offer tantalizing hints of the PLA’s mindset, beliefs, assumptions, and proclivities. By assessing mainland writings about the war at sea and its implications, the policy community can catch glimpses of the Chinese military’s thinking about how it might fight a future great power war.

Drawing from extensive Chinese sources on the great battles at Midway, Guadalcanal, and Okinawa, this analysis reviews three recurring themes that emerge from the literature. Although Chinese analysts offer diverse findings from these campaigns, the following focuses on shore-based airpower, expeditionary logistics, and industrial strength and their corresponding parallels to Chinese strategy, Beijing’s ambitions, and the challenges ahead for the United States. 

Lesson One: Shore-Based Airpower

Chinese analysts have paid special attention to the role of shore-based airpower at Midway, Guadalcanal, and Okinawa. They note that less capable and older aircraft on Midway performed critical duties that contributed to the American success. Long-range reconnaissance by flying boats and bombers provided an early warning screen and detected the incoming enemy fleet, buying precious time for the defenders to respond. Although the aircraft launched from Midway were tactically ineffective against the Japanese carriers, they knocked the attacking fleet sufficiently off balance to pry open the chance to deliver a decisive blow by carrier aviation.

Chinese commentators concur that the American seizure and successful defense of Henderson airfield were crucial to victory at Guadalcanal. The contest for control of the airfield became the focal point of the island campaign and the object over which the Japanese army suffered mounting and eventually unsustainable losses. American aircraft launched from the airfield provided close-air support to ground operations, blunted Japanese air offensives, interdicted enemy resupply, and kept Japan’s flattops at bay. By contrast, owing to the distance separating the airbase at Rabaul from the scene of action, Japanese aircraft were unable to stay aloft long enough to influence the course of the conflict.

Chinese analysts have documented the interactive impact of shore-based airpower during the struggle over Okinawa. Once the American fleet fell within range of Japanese aircraft, including the kamikazes, on Kyushu, the Ryukyus, and Taiwan, it came under unrelenting and deadly air assaults. Moreover, U.S. forces were unable to knock out the many airfields on Kyushu, exposing the fleet to a persistent air threat. Naval historian Zhao Zhenyu observes that Japan’s resilient land-based airpower fixed U.S. carriers in their places to defend the airspace around Okinawa.1 Conversely, the American capture of two airfields on Okinawa enabled U.S. airpower to provide close air support, fight off enemy air raids, and conduct deep sweeps against airbases on Kyushu, forcing the Japanese to relocate their aircraft beyond the range of American fighters.

The logic of shore-based airpower during the Pacific War is discernible today. In a major conventional war against the United States, the PLA would employ shore-based firepower—in the form of aircraft and precision-strike missiles launched from the mainland—to degrade or cripple American airpower at sea and ashore. It would hold at risk American carriers and their air wings operating within the range of its land-based firepower, just as Imperial Japanese air forces did to the U.S. Navy at Okinawa. Chinese missile attacks against Kadena Air Base in Okinawa, the hub of American airpower in Asia, could shut down the airfield for weeks or longer. Such an outcome would be analogous to Japan’s loss of shore-based airpower on Guadalcanal and its cascading consequences for Japanese air, naval, and land operations.  

Imagine a scenario in which China knocks out U.S. regional airbases while it keeps American carriers at arm’s length. Should it become too risky for land- and carrier-based airpower to launch sorties from offshore areas of the Chinese mainland, the United States would have to count on aircraft from more distant bases, including those in Guam and Hawaii. China’s deployment of the DF-26 intermediate-range ballistic missile suggests that even Guam may no longer enjoy its sanctuary status. If American airpower were pushed farther away from Chinese shores, the U.S. military’s predicament would echo the dilemma that plagued Japanese airpower on Rabaul during the Guadalcanal campaign.

Lesson Two: Logistics

Chinese writings express profound admiration for superior American logistics during the Pacific War. At Guadalcanal, U.S. forward basing, convoying, and sea lane defense allowed for the constant flow of materiel and troops to the island. The Japanese, by contrast, were ill-equipped to resupply their forces on Guadalcanal while American interdiction worsened Japan’s logistical predicament. Dwindling supplies and reinforcements sapped the Japanese army, leaving soldiers without food and ammunition in the campaign’s closing months. Chinese analysts also criticize the Imperial Japanese Navy (IJN) for failing to attack vulnerable American resupply efforts and exposed supply dumps on the island during the battle’s early stages. In reference to the U.S. logistics vessels that escaped destruction at Guadalcanal, naval analyst Liu Yi argues:

“Those unremarkable transports determined the war’s trajectory after the attritional campaign over Guadalcanal. The war was not to be dictated exclusively by the gains and losses of warships or islands. Rather, the war was about the ability to continue developing a nation’s industrial potential and to convert that potential into the energy that could sustain frontline combat power in a long-term struggle.”2

Chinese commentators extol America’s overwhelming logistical power during the conquest of Okinawa. They are uniformly impressed by the forward basing at the Kerama Islands, the entire logistical infrastructure across the Pacific, including the great anchorage at Ulithi, the at-sea replenishment fleet, the massive amphibious assault force, and the follow-on resupply efforts to keep the ground offensives going. The administrative and logistical systems needed to sustain the supply chain that stretched from the West Coast through various intermediary bases all the way to Okinawa are awe-inspiring to them.

Today, the PLA appreciates that logistical prowess—of the kind the United States demonstrated in the Pacific War—is essential to its global ambitions. The PLA will need to establish forward bases, field transport and logistical ships, and set up various support facilities at home and abroad. It must not only deploy forces that can credibly engage in sea lane defense and interdict enemy supply lines, but it must also demonstrate those skills through peacetime exercises and training. Chinese strategists concur that the infrastructure necessary to support distant missions must align with the sinews of China’s national power to avoid Imperial Japan’s fate at Guadalcanal.

Naval ships assigned to flotillas with the navy under the PLA Eastern Theater Command steam in formation to conduct alongside and astern replenishment-at-sea during a comprehensive replenishment training exercise on February 10, 2023. (eng.chinamil.com.cn/Photo by Zhang Weile)

The PLA understands that logistical weaknesses, like Imperial Japan’s, can be fatal. It recognizes that modern wars consume huge quantities of materiel, placing enormous strains on logistical systems. Disruptions to resupply could lead to the loss of battlefield initiative or worse. The PLA’s doctrine thus calls for attacks against the enemy’s lines of communications to undermine its warfighting capabilities. The theory is that an effective strike against the opponent’s supply chain would cut off the essentials needed to keep its frontline combat units fighting, much as American airpower did to Japanese defenders on Guadalcanal.

Lesson Three: Industrial Power

Chinese analysts acknowledge the importance of economic power and industrial strength in carrying out a protracted war at sea. To them, the mismatch between Imperial Japan’s economy and its ambitions led to severe overextension at Guadalcanal. The destruction of transports and ground forces there accelerated the consumption of scarce resources and compounded Japan’s overreach. The cumulative effects of attrition spilled over into Japanese campaign plans on the Asian continent, compelling Tokyo to call off offensives against Nationalist positions in southcentral China. Losses that Japan could ill afford thus sharpened its dilemma of fighting a two-front war on the mainland and in the Pacific.

Chinese observers have analyzed the interplay between industrial capacity and attrition of forces on the battlefield. They find that Japan’s lack of industrial depth and personnel to recover from combat losses was a critical factor in the conduct and the outcome of the war. Imperial Japan’s inability to rapidly reconstitute its forces had a particularly baneful impact on Japanese warfighting. The loss of irreplaceable pilots at Midway and Guadalcanal was a major contributing factor to Japan’s declining fortunes. To mainland analysts, Japan’s struggle with material and manpower shortfalls illustrates the importance of harnessing all elements of national strength in fighting protracted great power wars.

Today, there are concerns about the U.S. Navy’s capacity to sustain and make up for its losses in a prolonged war. Armed with a large arsenal of missiles, the PLA would seek to land decisive blows against the approaching U.S. surface fleet, just as the IJN and the U.S. Navy inflicted heavy losses on each other in single encounters. The PLA’s ability to drive up attrition means that mass will be at a premium for the United States. Yet, decades of decline, neglect, and mismanagement have led to an atrophied defense-industrial base and an undersized, aging fleet. This resource quandary raises unsettling questions about whether the United States, in a naval war against China, might encounter material constraints like that of Imperial Japan.

Aiming High 

History lessons and historical analogies are not predictions. They hint at the shape of things to come. If the PLA’s interpretations of the Pacific War are any indication of its ambitions, then U.S. policymakers should take notice. Tellingly, Chinese strategists see the United States in the Pacific War as their surrogate for China in a future war. They depict the Imperial Japanese Navy’s failings as a cautionary tale while they show the U.S. Navy’s successes as a model for emulation. Their fascination, if not obsession, with America’s logistical prowess is just one sign of China’s aspirations. The literature conforms to Beijing’s expectation that the PLA must strive to become an equal to the U.S. military. Policymakers should thus treat Chinese lessons from the Pacific War as early warning signals of the PLA’s aims and plans.

Toshi Yoshihara is a senior fellow at the Center for Strategic and Budgetary Assessments (CSBA). His latest book is Mao’s Army Goes to Sea: Island Campaigns and the Founding of China’s Navy (Georgetown University Press, 2022). 

References 

1. Zhao Zhenyu, History of Sea Battles in the Pacific (Beijing: Haichao Press, 1997), pp. 643-644.

2. Liu Yi, The Combined Fleet (Wuhan: Wuhan University Press, 2010), p. 206.

The opinions expressed herein are the author's and not necessarily those of The Maritime Executive.

Ukraine's Uncrewed Boats are Changing the Way Wars Are Fought

PUBLISHED MAR 23, 2023 

BY DR. ADAM JAMES FENTON

 

When Ukraine successfully deployed self-driving “drone” boats for a major attack on the Russian navy at Sevastopol in Crimea in September 2022 it was a defining moment that changed the future of naval warfare. Uncrewed surface vessels (USVs) have been used before, but this was the first instance of multiple, armed USVs, used simultaneously in combination with aerial drones for a successful, offensive naval operation on a military target.

Several Russian ships were damaged in the attack, and the USVs were reportedly able to penetrate the harbour defences and cause damage to ships in protected anchorages. This will cause a rethink of the role of uncrewed vessels for offensive naval ops, and of harbour defences to protect against such attacks.

USVs offer a number of advantages over regular manned vessels which make them attractive to navies – and many countries have been developing or experimenting with them in recent years. The US has invested heavily with a strategic plan to acquire medium, large and extra-large “unmanned vehicles” to operate both on the surface and underwater. By 2052, more than half of the US naval fleet could potentially be uncrewed.

Other navies are reluctant to be left behind and are actively developing their uncrewed and autonomous capabilities. These include China, UK, South Korea, Japan, Singapore, Australia, and others.

By removing human crews from naval vessels a number of efficiencies can be achieved. The design of the ship can be streamlined, disregarding human needs such as sleeping, eating and safety (sleeping berths, galleys, life-rafts and life-jackets can all be removed). So they can be smaller, cheaper to run, faster and able to remain at sea for longer periods of time, in harsher conditions, without any risk of injury or human error.

If armed, they are able to strike targets at the push of a button. And if armed with artificial intelligence (AI) enabled weapons, they are able to identify, acquire and engage targets without any human oversight – and at much greater speeds. Vice-admiral Roy Kitchener, the commander of US naval surface forces, commented in December 2022 that USVs would be a “catalyst for innovation” in the US Pacific fleet, adding that: “The implementation of unmanned systems will increase decision speed and lethality to enhance our warfighting advantage.”

Ethical and legal questions

But the use of these uncrewed warships raises a number of important legal and ethical questions. Under the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) – often referred to as the “Constitution of the Oceans” – a “warship” is legally defined as being “under the command of an officer” and “manned by a crew which is under regular armed forces discipline” (emphasis added).

As the “Articles to the Law of the Sea with Commentaries” from 1956 explains, “the definition of the term ‘warship’ has been based on articles 3 and 4 of The Hague Convention of 18 October 1907 relating to the conversion of merchant ships into warships”. The purpose of Article 29 was not to ensure the presence of human crews on warships. That was assumed. It was actually directed at ensuring crews of naval vessels were subject to state oversight and military discipline in response to the practice of privateering which had been employed by some states.

At present there is no settled legal position on the status of uncrewed vessels as “warships”. So how different states use them will be instrumental in forming a more solid position in international law.

Arguably, an expansive, evolutionary approach to interpreting the convention in light of modern advancements, and the purpose of Article 29, could allow an uncrewed vessel to be regarded as a “warship” to ensure a state’s accountability for its actions. This is precisely the view taken by the UK Ministry of Defence in a submission to the House of Lords in November 2021. On the question of whether UNCLOS is “fit for purpose” in the 21st century, it said that Article 29 confirms that:

State responsibility for the actions of warships and requires that the state have an accountable system of discipline to control the actions of those who operate them. Uncrewed vessels should be incorporated into this regime to regulate their proper use. This would be best achieved by an acceptance that Article 29 applies to state operated military uncrewed vessels.

The House of Lords, in its report on UNCLOS: the law of the sea in the 21st century, noted the “absence of international regulation” on the question of “whether maritime autonomous vehicles can be classified as warships or not” and the need to “work with like-minded partners to regulate these technologies”. Effectively leaving the question open until further international practice, opinion and consensus builds up.

The rapidly evolving technology means that the pace of naval conflict will continue to increase. Swarms of networked drones, equipped with AI will give significant speed and lethal advantages to those forces that use them. This will make human “in-the-loop” decision-making increasingly redundant – and even disadvantageous in future conflicts.

But there are significant cyber-security concerns and questions about the reliability and timeliness of human oversight of autonomous systems operating hundreds of nautical miles – possibly underwater – away from human oversight or control. Further, the UK’s commitment to the ethical and legal use of autonomous systems does in no way guarantee that rivals, enemies, or even allies, will show the same restraint – especially in times of war.

The international debate over lethal autonomous weapons systems (LAWS) and calls for a convention to ban them are relevant in this context. An issue of this importance needs to be subject to a public debate and parliament, as a representative of the people, needs to determine their legality and use.

Dr. Adam James Fenton is a Marie Sklodowska-Curie Research Fellow at Coventry University’s Centre for Trust, Peace and Social Relations (CTPSR). His current research project STRAITSECURITY: Hybrid threats to Maritime Security, is an assessment of cyber and cyber-physical vulnerabilities in the world's busiest shipping lanes

This article appears courtesy of The Conversation and may be found in its original form here. 

Cost Estimates for Repairs to HMS Prince of Wales Skyrocket

HMS Prince of Wales during her maiden arrival at Portsmouth (Royal Navy photo)

PUBLISHED MAR 22, 2023 2:08 PM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

The UK’s troubled plagued aircraft carrier the HMS Prince of Wales is the focus of a new controversy after The Times [London] published a report at the end of last week contending the problems were known before the Royal Navy took delivery and that taxpayers will now have to pay for the repairs to the vessel. The carrier remains in a dry dock in Scotland with her return to service being delayed till late spring with the Ministry of Defense having also launched an investigation into the carrier and its issues.

Costing an estimated £3.2 billion ($4 billion) to build, the carrier which was the most expensive warship ever built for Britain was delivered to the Royal Navy in December 2019. Reports indicate that the vessel has spent more time undergoing repairs since her delivery than in service as the Royal Navy sought to complete her commissioning and preparation for active duty. In August 2022, she was set to begin one of her highest-profile duties since delivery with a tour that was to cross the Atlantic for joint exercises with the U.S. Navy. Shortly after departure from Portsmouth, however, the carrier was forced to anchor and it was later determined that a coupling had failed on her starboard shaft causing significant damage to the shaft and propeller, with superficial damage to the rudder.

According to the report in The Times, the repair costs for the carrier have skyrocketed to an estimated £20 million. Original reports estimated the cost at £3 million. After entering the dry dock at Rosyth, Scotland in October 2022, an inspection identified potential similar issues with the port shaft. In February reports surfaced in the media that the Royal Navy as a precaution had decided to overhaul the second shaft at the same time and that the carrier’s return to service was then being delayed as they awaited the arrival of parts.

The Prince of Wales requires an exceptional high tide to move from the dry dock and the delays are complicating the timing of her return to the Navy homeport according to the media reports. It is being said that the Navy had expected she would return to base in February and that it is now being delayed till at least May.

A Royal Navy spokesperson responded to The Times saying, “We expect HMS Prince of Wales to commence her operational program as planned, in autumn 2023. This will include flying training and trials.” The spokesperson responded to further speculation confirming, “An investigation is underway to establish the cause of the starboard shaft failure and once complete ministers will provide an update on the outcome.”

The British tabloids are highlighting new accusations that the delivery of the carrier may have been rushed to suit political purposes and that there may have been an awareness of potential problems with the shafts. They are alleging that reports show that issues were identified with the shafts but that it was decided to take delivery regardless of the potential for failure. They contend that the carrier’s problems stem from a misalignment of the shafts during construction.

Ministry of Defense investigators are said to be looking into who knew about the potential problems and when they were first identified as a concern. They also want to know if the issue was ignored or who made the decision not to highlight the issues up the chain of command. 

The Royal Navy responded to inquiries from The Times stating that during tests performed on the HMS Prince of Wales before delivery in 2019, both shafts and the vibration measurements had “remained within the established limits.”

Experts also point out that the government will have a difficult time potentially recovering any of the costs of the repairs from the building group, which was disbanded after the delivery of the second carrier. Both the HMS Prince of Wales and her earlier sistership HMS Queen Elizabeth were built by a specially formed Aircraft Carrier Alliance, a partnership between defense companies BAE Systems, Babcock International, and Thales Group. 

Video: Intoxicated Pilot Aboard HMM Boxship Hits Dock at Kaohsiung

PUBLISHED MAR 21, 2023 12:10 PM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

A containership arriving in Taiwan hit the berth after traveling in excess of the harbor speed according to reports from the port authority and Taiwan’s Maritime and Port Bureau. They are confirming media reports that the pilot assigned to the vessel was legally intoxicated at the time of the incident.

The 80,000 dwt Hyundai Tokyo was arriving from Ningbo, China at the Port of Kaohsiung on March 20 when the harbor master’s office was alerted to the excess speed. The 997-foot vessel, which has a carrying capacity of 6,763 TEU, cleared the breakwater around 9:00 a.m. As it was moving across the harbor, the warning system in the Kaohsiung station began alerting the harbor master’s office that the vessel was traveling above normal speeds. 

According to the reports, the vessel was traveling over six knots. The signal station called the pilot four times in less than one minute to warn of the speed but received no reply. The vessel was also being escorted to its berth by a harbor tug.

 

 

 

Video posted on social media shows the vessel sailing at a 90-degree angle and not slowing as approaches the berth. Instead of turning, it proceeds straight with its prow making contact with the steel-reinforced concrete berth. 

The crew alerted the Harbor Bureau that the pilot smelled of alcohol. Subsequent tests showed that he was above the legal limits. Newspaper reports are saying he later admitted having been out drinking the night before and reporting to work at 6:00 a.m.

The Maritime and Port Bureau initially detained the containership while inspections were ongoing. The vessel was reported to have suffered only minor damage. It was released and permitted to proceed on March 21 to Shekou, China only after posting a bond for potential damages to the port’s facilities and signing a statement of responsibility.

Divers were scheduled to inspect the underwater areas of the berth to determine the full extent of the damage. The port authority released photos of extensive cracks in the concrete which it said were caused by the vessel’s impact.

Cracks in the concrete caused by the vessel striking the berth (Maritime and Port Bureau photo)

Mexican Government Seizes U.S.-Owned Marine Terminal Near Cancun

The Sac-Tun marine terminal at Vulcan's Playa del Carmen quarry (Sac-Tun file image)

PUBLISHED MAR 21, 2023 8:50 PM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

An American construction materials company says that the Mexican military has seized a privately-owned rock quarry and port facility near Playa del Carmen, on the Yucatan Peninsula. 

Alabama-based Vulcan Materials Company has run a limestone quarry in the Mexican state of Quintana Roo for more than 30 years, supplying crushed rock for cement manufacturing on the U.S. Gulf Coast. The port is operated by Sac-Tun, a local subsidiary of Vulcan.

Mexican President Andres Manuel Lopez Obrador has tussled with the operator for more than a year, calling on Vulcan to convert the limestone quarry into a tourist park and claiming that the operation has caused environmental damage. He is also believed to have an interest in Vulcan's marine terminal for the quarry, which is the only dock in the region capable of handling rock shipments for construction of the gigantic Maya Train rail line project - a controversial piece of Obrador's development program. Obrador has been pushing to accelerate the line's construction, and the train relies on imported rock. 

Obrador's administration ordered Vulcan to shut down its underwater quarrying operations at the site in May 2022, citing environmental concerns - an order which Vulcan believes to be illegal under Mexican law. The government then suspended Vulcan's customs permit for exports, which had just been renewed two months earlier. These two "arbitrary and illegal" interventions forced the facility to shut down. 

Vulcan had an agreement with Mexican cement maker Cemex to allow it to use the quarry's marine loading terminal, but that contract ended on December 31, and Vulcan asked Cemex to renegotiate. In ongoing litigation, Vulcan obtained a court injunction prohibiting Cemex or the Mexican government from taking over the facility; however, according to Vulcan, Cemex representatives returned with the Mexican armed forces and seized the property on March 14. Gate camera footage appeared to capture clear video imagery of government troops accompanying workers in Cemex-branded company pickup trucks as they entered the complex. 

"Vulcan owns the four parcels of property that make up its Mexico operation, including the port facilities. Likewise, Vulcan lawfully holds the port concession. Use of Vulcan's private property by third parties, such as Cemex, requires Vulcan's authorization," the firm said in a statement. 

Vulcan, the largest construction aggregates company in the United States and one of the largest employers in Alabama, has enlisted the support of its home state's congressional delegation to press its case. 

"It’s been over a week, and Mexican governmental forces continue to militarily occupy an Alabama company’s private property - despite a Mexican federal court ordering all government forces to vacate the premises. This is unacceptable, and [President Joe Biden] should say so," said Sen. Katy Britt (R-AL) in a statement. 

The incident has drawn the attention of the White House, and the State Department warned in a brief statement Tuesday that the apparent expropriation of the site could harm relations. 

“We speak regularly with Mexican officials about our expectation that U.S. companies be treated fairly and in accordance with all trade obligations. We also note that failure to do so has the potential to impact our ability to achieve our shared vision for improving livelihoods in one of Mexico’s most economically disadvantaged regions and Mexico’s ability to attract future investments," the department cautioned. 

Video: Portugal Tows Burning Tanker to Sea as Weather Front Approaches

Product tanker Greta K was towed out to sea as the fire continues to burn in the engine room (Portuguese Navy)

PUBLISHED MAR 22, 2023 5:00 PM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

Portuguese authorities are reporting that the fire aboard the product tanker Greta K remains active, but they believe it is under control. They were able to move the vessel further offshore as they plan their next steps while the National Maritime Authority has issued a warning for worsening weather and sea conditions on the west coast of the mainland starting on Thursday morning.

“Everything remains the same as last night,” port commander Humberto da Silva Rocha said in a media briefing. The amount of smoke from the vessel was diminished but they continue to believe the fire is active in the stern section. So far, there has been no secondary ignition or oil spill. The 24,768 dwt product tanker is believed to be fully loaded with a cargo of jet fuel and diesel, in addition to the diesel and lubes for its own use. The vessel’s manager, K-Ships is reporting that they believe the fire has been contained within the engine room and possibly traveling up the funnel trunk.

 

Maritime Authority and Navy issued video (Click photo to play)

Overnight the teams from the ports and maritime authority were successful in attaching a tow line to the Greta K. When the fire broke out the vessel was less than two miles from shore with a pilot aboard as it was approaching the port of Leixões. The port commander reports they were able to move the tanker to a position 11 nautical miles from the coastline. A towline remains attached to one tug while a second tug continues to spray water to cool the exterior of the vessel. The Navy, a pilot boat, and others can be seen in the video released by the Navy and Maritime Authority standing by near the tanker.

Navy officials reported that one of their frigates, NRP Corte-Real, reached the stricken tanker. This morning they evacuated the last of the crew, the captain and two officers, who were taken to the frigate to advise a technical team that plans to inspect the tanker to determine if the fire is still burning and the extent of the damage. 

 

 

 

A decision on the next steps was planned for later today based on the weather warnings. The National Maritime Authority reports that a strong weather front will reach Portugal by Thursday morning with the swell coming from the northwest quadrant, with a significant height that can exceed 20 feet and a maximum height of just over 40 feet. Onshore, they are warning the public to reinforce mooring lines on boats, avoid beaches and recreation fishing until the storm subsides mid-day on Saturday.

After the fire began on the Greta K, they evacuated 12 of the 19 crewmembers aboard with the others remaining to aid in the firefight. Four additional crewmembers were later removed from the vessel and they are all in Leixões where they will be interviewed by the Maritime Police. One crewmember was reportedly treated at the hospital for burns to one hand, but otherwise, everyone escaped unharmed.

The hope was that the product tanker could still be brought into the port at Leixões where it was due to unload. 

Researchers Study Maersk Ships to Reduce Underwater Noise

Study focused on Maersk's G-class (115,000 dwt) before and after significant refits (Scripps)

PUBLISHED MAR 24, 2023 12:21 PM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

Researchers working with Maersk published the results of a long-term study focusing on vessel designs that would reduce radiated noise levels and source levels from commercial ships sailing in the ocean. Produced in a collaboration between Maersk and researchers at UC San Diego’s Scripps Institution of Oceanography, the report contains the first long-term data set measuring hundreds of trips both before and after a significant refit program undertaken by Maersk to its G-class containerships. The researchers hope the data will contribute to the efforts by the International Maritime Organization and others focusing on reducing noise radiating from shipping.

The effort focused on the Santa Barbara Channel, a heavily trafficked shipping route off Southern California where the Scripps team has been recording and measuring the marine soundscape for decades. They use instruments known as High-Frequency Acoustic Recording Packages, or HARPs, that have an underwater microphone, or hydrophone, sitting on the seafloor at a depth of 1,900 feet.

“This paper was a first step in assessing whether retrofitting had an impact on noise levels,” said Vanessa ZoBell, a Scripps Ph.D. student and lead author of the study which was published in the journal PLOS One. “It was an interdisciplinary effort involving marine scientists, industry, naval architects, and policy experts.”

The research collaboration started following Maersk’s completion of a $1 billion, five-year “Radical Retrofit” initiative focused on improving energy efficiency and fuel consumption to reduce emissions. During this effort, 12 of Maersk’s G-class containerships (115,700 dwt) were retrofitted from 2015 through 2018. The vessels had been built a decade earlier. The 1,200-foot ships underwent alterations including a redesign or replacing of the bulbous bow to reduce drag, derating the main engines for slow steaming, and installing more efficient, four-bladed propellers with propeller boss cap fins to reduce cavitation. The result also raised the vessels’ carry capacity by approximately 1,000 boxes with Maersk reporting they now have a nominal capacity of approximately 11,000 TEU.

Researchers were able to isolate a total of 177 transits recorded between 2008 and 2018 aboard the G-class pre and post the renovations as they made their way to and from the ports of Los Angeles and Long Beach. They assembled a dataset from 111 transits from these ships. They excluded 66 transits because of the presence of singing whales or other acoustic interference. 

The study identified retrofit-induced changes in the ships’ radiated noise levels and monopole source levels. Radiated noise measurements account for the distance between the recording device (such as the hydrophone) and the sound it is recording (the ship noise) by correcting for the distance in-between the ship and the recorder. Monopole source levels account for what you would hear if you were positioned one meter away from the source, which in commercial ships is predominantly the sound from propeller cavitation or pressure-related water cavities due to propeller motion.

The team identified a significant decrease in monopole source levels in the low-frequency band by over five decibels post-retrofitting. This noise reduction was likely due to the changes in the propeller and bow design, wrote the authors.

Post-retrofit, they also measured a slight increase in the radiated noise level from the ships, likely due to the increased number of containers stacked on top of the retrofitted vessels. The additional weight likely caused the vessels to sit deeper in the water, changing their draft. The authors note that while noise levels rose from one perspective, the increased cargo capacity will lead to fewer trips and thereby reduce ocean noise. The interaction between retrofit and speed in this study was also noteworthy, highlighting that the effect of retrofitting on the monopole source level was greatest at slower speeds.

“One of the goals of the vessel retrofit was to add more containers, allowing the ship to transport more cargo,” said John Hildebrand, principal investigator of the Scripps Whale Acoustics Lab and a co-author on the study. “This changed the draft of the ship which had an impact on the noise. It forced us to think about the noise relative to the number of containers transported, which was a new perspective.”

Because multiple design changes occurred at once in the retrofitted ships highlighted in this study, it was difficult for the authors to disentangle which changes were most effective in reducing sound levels, so further research in this area is needed.

“Underwater noise is increasingly recognized as an important environmental factor, and is starting to be addressed at the International Maritime Organization level,” said Lee Kindberg, head of Environment and Sustainability for Maersk North America and a study co-author who was instrumental in the collaboration. “The team at Scripps has unique expertise in this area. It is clear that we need additional info to design most effectively to both reduce underwater noise and greenhouse gas emissions. The best solution must address both of these issues.”

The new paper is the latest in a series of studies done from the dataset. The authors concluded by recommending that future studies further test the noise reductions found in this study with larger sample sizes, different ship types, and different design approaches to identify the most efficient methods for reducing underwater noise on an international level.

UK Sets Minimum Wage for International Seafarers

New UK law applies to all ships calling 120 or more times per year in UK ports (file photo)

PUBLISHED MAR 24, 2023 11:55 AM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

The United Kingdom finalized a new law on March 23 that compels shipping lines operating at UK ports to provide seafarers pay levels commensurate with the country’s minimum wage laws regardless of the nationality of the crew or operator. The Seafarers’ Wages Act received Royal Assent making it law as part of a government initiative to institute pay protections a year after P&O Ferries replaced its crews with lower-paid contract labor and as part of the broader initiative to crack down on unfair practices, end exploitation, and improve the working conditions for seafarers.

“Our maritime sector is world-leading. That’s down to the thousands of hardworking seafarers working tirelessly to maintain supply chains and transport passengers safely across our waters,” said Mark Harper, the UK’s Transport Secretary. “These workers deserve a fair wage and I’m therefore delighted to see our Seafarers’ Wages Act become law, helping improve pay and protect seafarers from exploitation.”

Seafarers working on ships that call at UK ports at least 120 times a year will now be entitled to a wage rate that is at least equivalent to the UK national minimum wage for their work in UK waters. The minimum wage in the UK is currently set at £6.83 ($8.40) for an individual between the ages of 18 to 20, £9.18 ($11.20) for those between 21 and 22, and for individuals age 23 and over the minimum wage is £9.50 ($11.60). With the new law, the UK has set a high bar in seafarers’ wages considering that as of July 1, 2022, the International Labor Organization’s recommended basic minimum wage for an able seaman is $648 (£550) per calendar month, an equivalent to an hourly rate of $3.20 (£2.66).

Before the law went into effect, seafarers working on international routes to or from UK ports were not entitled to the country’s minimum wage unless they were usually a resident of the UK, did work at least to some extent in the country, or worked on ships flagged outside the UK.

“Thousands of seafarers will now have extra security in respect to pay and working conditions following a year of turmoil after the mass sackings made by P&O Ferries,” said Stuart Rivers, Chief Executive of the UK’s Merchant Navy Welfare Board, a charity that provides welfare services for seafarers and fishermen. “Ensuring seafarers have the highest level of welfare support is imperative – and seeing this legislation given Royal Assent is a big step to achieving that.”

The UK government and union leaders were enraged last year by P&O Ferries's decision to dismiss 786 officers and ratings without prior notice or consultations with the unions. The company, owned by Dubai’s DP World and operating a fleet of more than 20 vessels, announced the dismissals in a videotaped message while saying it would replace the crews with lower-cost agency workers. 

Unable to prosecute the company for labor law violations, the government responded with a nine-point plan for seafarers, eight of which are legislations to grant British ports powers to refuse access to ships that do not pay their crew at least an equivalent to the UK’s minimum wage. 

Under the new law, authorities will have the power to charge operators of vessels who do not provide evidence they’re paying their seafarers the equivalent of the minimum wage and to refuse harbor access to shipping lines that continue to fail to comply.

The UK government is also advocating for European Union nations to follow suit and set minimum wages. The UK and France have already pledged to continue working together to improve conditions for seafarers working in the English Channel to protect crews from exploitation.

The government is also taking action against what it calls rogue employers using controversial “fire and rehire” practices. Consultations on a statutory code of practice have been initiated as the first step toward promulgating a new law addressing these practices. The code sets out employers’ responsibilities when seeking to change employment terms and conditions if there is the prospect of dismissal and re-engagement thus requiring them to consult staff and explore alternative options without using the threat of dismissal to pressure employees to agree to new terms.

Nautilus International, the UK union that represent 20,000 maritime professionals, recognized the passage of the wages act as a first step. The union however believes more is required to prevent a repeat of the P&O Ferries situation in March 2022. They are calling for implementing a mandatory seafarers charter, backed up by bilateral agreements with neighboring countries.

Earlier this week, the House of Commons Transport Select Committee also recommended the creation of a mandatory seafarers' welfare charter. The government's current plan calls for asking operators to sign up voluntarily but the committee believes that it will not give the assurances and protections that seafarers want and deserve. Transport Committee chair Iain Stewart expressed concern that the UK minimum wage equivalent for seafarers will not be sufficient to ensure proper treatment of seafarers.

Denmark Locates “Object” Near Nord Stream as Norway Steps Up Patrols

Unidentified object seen next to the Nord Stream pipeline (Danish Defence)

PUBLISHED MAR 24, 2023 5:08 PM BY THE MARITIME EXECUTIVE

 

Danish Defense and the Danish Energy Agency are reporting that they have located an unidentified object alongside an undamaged section of the Nord Stream pipeline that they want to examine. This comes as the investigations continue while elsewhere in Scandinavia they continue to report an increased level of Russian activity around sensitive infrastructure elements. Russia, on Friday, however, indicated that it welcomed the Danish efforts repeating its claims that additional unexploded devices might be near the pipelines.

“The object is cylindrical and is about 40 cm (approximately 16 inches) tall and 10 cm (4 inches) in diameter,” the Danish Energy Agency said in a statement released on March 23. “With a view to further clarifying the nature of the object, Danish authorities have decided to salvage the object with assistance from the Danish Defence.”

This latest development comes as Denmark continues to work on the ongoing investigation as two of the damaged sections of the gas pipeline are within Danish territory. They said that they do not believe there is any immediate danger from the object. Relevant Danish authorities have reportedly examined the images of the object observed by the Nord Stream 2 pipeline in the Baltic. They are speculating that it might be a maritime smoke buoy, normally used as a warning device to send distress signals. 

The owners and operators of the pipeline, Nord Stream 2 AG, indicated that they would cooperate with the Danish agencies in their efforts to lift the device from the seafloor.  

Russian news agency Tass, also reported on the development saying that Russia also welcomed the efforts. The reiterated claims made by President Vladimir Putin. Last week during an interview he said that Gazprom had received permission to survey the sections of the pipeline and believed that its ship found evidence that could mean there’s another explosive device on a Nord Stream pipeline approximately 18 miles from the site of the damage. Tass quotes Putin as saying “it appears that several explosive devices were planted," and that "Some of them went off, and some didn’t.”

 

 

Denmark’s announcement came as the U.S.’s NBC News outlet was reporting that Norway is increasing the number of naval patrols near vital undersea assets including the pipelines and data and telecommunication lines. NBC embedded reports with the Norwegian Navy and released video showing Russian submarines and images of airplanes which the Norwegian say have increased their presence in the region and are acting “more unpredictably.” 

Earlier this year, both the Netherlands and Belgium accused Russian vessels of spying on their offshore assets including their wind farms. Both countries said they had detected what they called “spy ships” near their assets but that the vessels had moved away when detected. 

The UK Prime Minister who has long advocated for increased surveillance of critical undersea assets late last year accelerated a project to increase his country’s efforts. The UK recently acquired two commercial offshore vessels that are being repurposed for the Royal Navy to monitor undersea pipelines and cables and to provide a capability to handle potential threats such as mines.