It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
CREDIT: PHOTO: RAUL HERNANDEZ / EÖTVÖS LORÁND UNIVERSITY
Dogs’ food preferences are mirrored in their brain activity, particularly within their caudate nuclei -a brain region associated with reward processing, a new study combining behavioural and neuroimaging data by researchers from the Department of Ethology, Eötvös Loránd University (Hungary) and Symrise Pet Food (France) finds. The study, which seamlessly blends behavioral observations with advanced neuroimaging techniques, offers novel insights into the influence of food quality on dogs' motivation. This work has been published in Scientific Reports.
Similar to people, when it comes to food, some dogs are pickier, while others are more easygoing. However, even food that may not be the tastiest is still motivating. Through two experiments, this study tested the influence of food quality on dogs' motivation to solve a problem, as well as their corresponding brain representations.
In the first experiment, a cohort of twenty family dogs was trained to unwrap a box. Subsequently, these dogs were taught to associate specific tones with two distinct food types: smoked ham, a highly rewarding treat, and fiber cookies, a less rewarding option. Finally, dogs unwrapped a box while one of the sounds played, and we used the unwrapping time as a measure of their motivation to obtain the associated food. The results showed that the dogs unwrapped the box quicker when the sound associated with the higher quality food, the smoked ham, was played.
The second experiment involved another group of twenty family dogs, which were trained to remain still in a brain scanner. Initially, a scanning session exposed the dogs to both sounds, which held no meaning at this stage. Following this, the dogs participated in the wrapped box experiment. Finally, the dogs underwent another scanning session during which they listened to the sounds again, but this time, each sound had an association with either smoked ham or fiber cookies.
The focus of the brain analysis centered on observing changes in the caudate nucleus, a brain region linked to reward processing across species. Compared to the first session, the caudate nucleus exhibited a heightened response in the second session, responding more strongly to both sounds. Remarkably, it displayed an even more pronounced response to the sound associated with the highly rewarding smoked ham. "While prior research has primarily focused on how the dog brain responds to rewards versus non-rewards, our study takes a step further, delving into the representation of two food rewards varying in quality. Our findings highlight that the caudate nuclei not merely process rewards, but also distinguish between rewards based on their quality." — explains Dorottya Ujfalussy, senior author of the study.
Of course, not all showed the same performance. The greater the discrepancy in the speed at which dogs unwrapped the two boxes, the more discernible their brain response patterns became for the two sounds in their right caudate nucleus. "It is exciting to be able to 'see' how dogs represent different foods in their brains and observe how the quality of the food influences their motivation. We were surprised to discover a distinct positive correlation between the behavior of the dogs and their brain representations. The direction of this relationship still intrigues us; based on our data, we cannot determine whether a more distinct brain representation of both sounds enables a better behavioral performance or if it operates in the reverse. It’s likely that this process is not solely unidirectional." — says Laura V. Cuaya, first author of the study.
Pickier Dogs Have Pickier Brains
CREDIT
Photo: Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University
Representation of rewards differing in their hedonic valence in the caudate nucleus correlates with the performance in a problem-solving task in dogs (Canis familiaris)
Do you get the point? – Are dogs or cats more skilled in relying on human pointing gestures?
Dog and cat owners are familiar with the age-old debate: which of the two species is smarter?
CREDIT: PHOTO: DEPARTMENT OF ETHOLOGY AT EÖTVÖS LORÁND UNIVERSITY
Dog and cat owners are familiar with the age-old debate: which of the two species is smarter? However, answering this question is impossible, especially due to the difficulty of a sound comparison.
The degree to which our two most popular pets are similar to each other has long been a source of a scientific debate. Many comparative studies have already been conducted on these species, with varying degrees of success. For example, it is unclear whether they are able to recognize human communicational signals, such as pointing, to the same extent.
Researchers from the ELKH-ELTE Comparative Ethology Research Group and the Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University compared how well companion dogs and cats can choose based on human pointing gestures in their recent study. Importantly, the pets were tested under the same conditions, ensuring the comparability of the results.
"We tested cats and dogs first in the laboratory, which was quite the challenge for cats," said Attila Salamon, the first author of the article. "A total of 62 indoor family cats were brought to the Department by their owners, but we could carry out the pointing test with only 34 of them. The rest were either too shy or unmotivated to participate even though their favourite treats were offered. On the other hand, no dogs had to be excluded."
"The task appeared to be very simple: we placed two containers on the ground, one of which contained a food reward. The experimenter always pointed at the baited container, then the subject could choose. Overall, dogs proved to be more skilled: they found the reward significantly more frequently than cats," said Melitta Csepregi, co-author. “In addition, cats gradually became less willing to choose, while dogs were eager to work during the whole duration of the test.”
Since cats seemed to be at a disadvantage in the unfamiliar environment, the researchers later tested a subgroup of the cats also at home. While cats’ willingness to choose a container did not decline at home, their overall success was still lower compared to dogs.
"There may be several sources of these differences. Cats may have been less attentive, less motivated by food rewards, or frustrated by the unfamiliar environment or unusual handling during the test,” said Márta Gácsi, the lead researcher. "Unlike the cat, the dog is a social species and was selected for interaction and cooperation with humans during domestication. Differences in how we keep them may also have contributed to the test results. All things considered, it's no surprise that it's less relevant for cats to rely on human communication cues" she added.
Cat finds the reward (IMAGE)
EÖTVÖS LORÁND UNIVERSITY
Stefania Uccheddu tests with cat.
Stefania Uccheddu tests with dog
CREDIT
Photo: Department of Ethology at Eötvös Loránd University
Vertically farmed greens taste as good as organic ones
Consumer skepticism about the taste of vertically farmed greens is widespread. But the first scientific taste test from the University of Copenhagen and Plant Food & Research, New Zealand shows that respondents rate greens grown vertically and without soil
Consumer skepticism about the taste of vertically farmed greens is widespread. But the first scientific taste test from the University of Copenhagen and Plant Food & Research, New Zealand shows that respondents rate greens grown vertically and without soil as just as good as organic ones.
Photo: Getty
Bland. Pale. Artificial. These are just a few of the prejudices that Danish consumers have about vertically farmed veggies. But plants grown indoors, stacked and without soil, have the potential to increase food security, provide more space for nature and ensure access to leafy greens and herbs year-round with short transport to consumers.
In the first study of its kind, researchers from the Department of Food Science investigated whether consumer prejudices hold true. In the study, researchers asked 190 participants to blind taste and rate rocket (arugula), baby spinach, pea shoots, basil and parsley, which were all grown organically and compare them with the same veggies grown by way of vertical farming.
The results of the study show that the test subjects like vertically-farmed products nearly as much as they do organic, soil-grown grown products.
"In terms of taste, we certainly have no reason to be skeptical. Indeed, the participants think that the vertically grown plants taste just as good as the ones we consider best – namely the organic ones," says Associate Professor Michael Bom Frøst, one of the researchers behind the study.
Close race in the vegetable battle
Overall, the organic greens narrowly beat out the vertically grown ones in the study, but the participant ratings are very close. For example, it was an absolute dead heat when participants had to rate rocket on a scale of 1-9, with 9 tasting best. Here, both rocket salads received a score of 6.6.
Also, the two varieties of baby spinach and basil were rated so closely that there was no real difference between them. Pea shoots were tested twice, with each type getting a win. The only clear winner for participants was organically grown parsley.
As such, the study debunks some of the prejudices that previous studies have shown with regards to consumer attitudes about vertically grown vegetables. While consumers are generally positive about the technology, they also have very low expectations of vegetables grown this way.
For example, they discount the possibility of vertically grown leafy greens and herbs tasting as good as organic ones. They also don't think that they're natural and healthy. And according to Michael Bom Frøst, this is a very natural prejudice.
"It's an example of the concept of neophobia, a psychological trait that we all have to varying degrees. It means that some consumers are not that happy about trying new things. This can be a major obstacle for new technologies and it is important to address through information and consumer education," he says, adding:
"This study clearly demonstrates that consumer prejudices about vertically grown products are debunked as soon as they taste them."
What is vertical farming
Vertical farming is an alternative cultivation method where production takes place indoors, in stacked layers and under controlled conditions, often with artificial light and without soil (e.g., hydroponic cultivation).
Vertical farming has the potential to be one of the answers for how we can deal with crop insecurity in parts of future food production subject to climate change and limited access to water and agricultural land. It also has some built-in advantages because foods can be grown locally and with a high yield.
Production is seasonal and climate-independent, it reduces water and land use, reduces nutrient emissions to the environment and potentially eliminates the need for pesticides. Controlled cultivation conditions make it possible to grow plants of a high and stable quality, though this requires the strict control of climatic conditions and the efficient use of resources.
Food security, sustainability goals and space for nature
According to the study’s lead author, Sara Jaeger, the new result paves the way for vertical cultivation to become more widespread than today. The farming method offers numerous advantages.
"Throughout history, technologies have been invented by humans to put food on the table. Vertical farms are grown under totally controlled conditions, which means that there is enormous food security in relation to attaining the same yield year after year," says the researcher, who adds:
"The latest evaluation of the UN Sustainable Development Goals shows that we need to both accelerate and alter the trajectory of development. Food security, climate action and biodiversity protection are all headed the wrong way. Our food system is incredibly central to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals," she says.
One of the great advantages of vertical cultivation is the large amount of space savings, as one can both grow upwards in stacks and harvest more frequently than by outdoors growing. This would allow for more agricultural land to be rewilded. Furthermore, cultivation facilities can be built close to big cities, allowing for a much shorter journey from producer to consumer. However, it is a form of cultivation with high investment costs. As such, global uncertainty and inflation are thwarting opportunities.
"Thirty percent of our land mass in the EU is set to be protected nature. So, somehow, we need to concentrate food production in less space. This is where an increase in vertical cultivation could well be the answer," Michael Bom Frøst concludes.
Results from the taste test
The researchers divided participants into two groups, who rated the tastes of vegetables on a scale of 1-9, where 1 was ‘dislike extremely’ and 9 was ‘like extremely’.
Test 1
Vertically grown
Organically grown
Result
Baby spinach
6.1
6.2
Tie
Basil
5.9
6.2
Tie
Pea shoots
7.8
6.9
Vertical wins
Rocket
7.2
7.5
Tie
Test 2
Parsley
5.6
6.8
Organic wins
Basil
5.9
6.4
Tie
Pea shoots
6.6
7.5
Organic wins
Rocket
6.6
6.6
Tie
About the study
The researchers conducted a survey among English, German and Danish consumers to determine consumer prejudices about vegetables grown by way of vertical farming.
They then conducted the first taste and consumer test using a number of vegetables grown in vertical farming, compared to organically grown vegetables.
The 190 Danish test subjects assessed taste, appearance and other sensory impressions.
The study was conducted in collaboration with The New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research and with the participation of researchers Sara R. Jaeger, Sok L. Chheang, Christina M. Roigard and Michael Bom Frøst.
Gas exchanges between the atmosphere and the ocean are a key part of the carbon cycle, playing a vital role in climate regulation and maintenance of the planet’s ecological equilibrium. The oceans are thought to absorb roughly a third of all the carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted by humanity. Understanding the complex processes involved in this gas exchange is therefore extremely important, especially in the context of the global climate crisis.
A new study discusses the processes that governed gas flows between the atmosphere and the South Atlantic in the recent past, showing a noteworthy natural balance in CO2 exchanges even in a scenario of abrupt climate change. The study was conducted in Brazil and funded by FAPESP. An article about it is published in the journal Global and Planetary Change.
“We investigated periods in the recent geological past when the global climate underwent abrupt changes caused by a reduction in the intensity of the Atlantic meridional overturning circulation [AMOC]. These events are named Heinrich Stadials (HS) after the German climatologist Hartmut Heinrich,” said Tainã Pinho, corresponding author of the article. The study was part of his master’s research at the University of São Paulo’s Institute of Geosciences (IGc-USP).
The AMOC transports a large amount of heat from the South to the North Atlantic, so the reduction in its intensity cooled the North Atlantic and warmed up the South Atlantic. A significant effect of the warming of the southern (meridional) part of the Atlantic was an increase in the deep-water upwelling in the Southern Ocean, which surrounds Antarctica. Upwelling is a process in which cold water rises from the depths toward the surface.
The increase in this upwelling led to a release into the atmosphere of large amounts of CO2 that had long been trapped under the Southern Ocean. CO2 from the seafloor has a “fingerprint” that distinguishes it from CO2 originating elsewhere.
All this history is recorded in marine sediment to some extent. “Our study was based on analysis of micro shells from planktonic foraminifera [marine protozoa that live in the upper ocean] preserved in three marine sediment cores, two of which were collected on the Brazilian coast in Alagoas and Santa Catarina states, and the third off the coast of South Africa. Analysis of the micro shells enabled us to reconstitute and understand a key link in gas exchanges between the atmosphere and the South Atlantic during Heinrich events,” Pinho said.
“Isotope analysis and mathematical modeling showed that carbon from the seafloor is transferred from the Southern Ocean to the atmosphere and then enters into equilibrium with the upper portion of the South Atlantic.”
This conclusion was based on the composition of the stable carbon isotopes in the micro shells, which consist mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3). Stable isotopes are non-radioactive forms of atoms in chemical elements that do not decay into other elements. Their stability is determined by the ratio of the number of neutrons to the number of protons in the nucleus. Naturally occurring stable isotopes of water and other substances are used to trace the origin, history, sources, sinks and interactions in water, carbon and nitrogen cycles. In the case of carbon, natural processes such as photosynthesis tend to favor the inclusion of one isotope rather than another in organic matter. When organisms that perform photosynthesis at or near the sea surface die, they sink down the water column and decompose at great depths, so that the isotope that was preferentially included is released back into the deep-sea pool of CO2, producing the fingerprint mentioned above.
“We compared the isotopic composition of the micro shells obtained in the three marine sediment cores with the isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 records in Antarctic ice core samples, and concluded that levels of atmospheric CO2 in the South Atlantic rose during Heinrich Stadials,” Pinho said.
The researchers observed a surplus of carbon-12 (light carbon, the most common isotope of carbon) during Heinrich events, and found this to be the fingerprint of deep-sea CO2. The micro shells reflected CO2 emissions with excess carbon-12 from the seafloor in the Southern Ocean to the atmosphere, followed by a balance in the surface waters of the South Atlantic.
“This balance wasn’t limited to the top of the water column. It reached depths of at least 300 meters. Through this balance, the fingerprint of the deep-sea CO2 was transferred to the sea surface in the South Atlantic,” Pinho said.
Evidence is growing that the AMOC is weakening and could even collapse by the end of the century. If so, it would lead to a rise in the temperature of the South Atlantic, which in addition to global warming would severely affect the climate of the entire planet.
“The solubility of CO2 in water decreases as the temperature of the water rises, so the ocean’s capacity to absorb CO2 diminishes as it warms up, at least partially disconnecting the ocean from the atmosphere. This important imbalance can be traced by analyzing the isotopic composition of the CO2 in seawater, analogously to the method use in the study reported here,” said Cristiano Chiessi, a researcher at IGc-USP and a co-author of the article. Chiessi was Pinho’s thesis advisor for his master’s research.
A deeper understanding of the carbon cycle between the atmosphere and the ocean in the past will enrich the climate change scenarios now being developed. Any decoupling of these key carbon reservoirs – the atmosphere and the ocean – must be monitored with maximum attention. “Interpreting the composition of stable carbon isotopes in planktonic foraminifera is a complex task but offers significant clues to an understanding of specific aspects of the carbon cycle,” Chiessi said.
In addition to its findings, the study represents a noteworthy basic science endeavor, identifying novel records from three different parts of the South Atlantic via more than 940 analyses, he added.
The study was funded by FAPESP via three projects (19/10642-6, 18/15123-4 and 19/24349-9), and was conducted under the aegis of the Biodiversity Characterization, Conservation, Restoration and Sustainable Use Program (BIOTA) and the Research Program on Global Climate Change Research Program (RPGCC).
About São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP)
The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) is a public institution with the mission of supporting scientific research in all fields of knowledge by awarding scholarships, fellowships and grants to investigators linked with higher education and research institutions in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. FAPESP is aware that the very best research can only be done by working with the best researchers internationally. Therefore, it has established partnerships with funding agencies, higher education, private companies, and research organizations in other countries known for the quality of their research and has been encouraging scientists funded by its grants to further develop their international collaboration. You can learn more about FAPESP at www.fapesp.br/en and visit FAPESP news agency at www.agencia.fapesp.br/en to keep updated with the latest scientific breakthroughs FAPESP helps achieve through its many programs, awards and research centers. You may also subscribe to FAPESP news agency at http://agencia.fapesp.br/subscribe.
“Dripstones, or speleothems, are unique natural archives - like Earth’s USB sticks. They store a wealth of information on past climate which helps us to better understand the environment in which early humans lived”, Jenny Maccali explains. She is a scientist at SapienCE Centre of Excellence, and has has lead the study, now published in Climate of the Past.
New perspective to ancient climate
South Africa has a highly dynamic climate resulting from its position at the convergence of two oceanic basins, the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Indian Ocean to the east. The region is also located at the boundary of different climate zones (subtropical vs. temperate), and the proximity of the Antarctic ice sheet has a direct impact on its climate by influencing the easterlies and westerlies winds position, and hence rainfall pattern.
“All these factors mean that climate in the past could have been different from today and also possibly highly variable”, Jenny Maccali says.
She says that it is particularly important given that the region hosts key archaeological sites with records of significant cognitive, technological, and social developments and it is important to understand the climatic conditions under which these occurred.
Archives for climate reconstruction
A recent study, Multi-proxy speleothem-based reconstruction of mid-MIS 3 climate in South Africa, undertaken by a team of scientists from SapienCE, used new techniques to reconstruct past climate and its variability.
Maccali and her team of researchers have focused on the subterranean world of caves, where they explore dripstones, also known as speleothems, to study past climate. The study is based on scientific analyses of speleothems from Bloukrantz Cave.
“Dripstones forming in caves are excellent archives for climate reconstructions, because their age can be accurately determined and a suite of methods can be used to reconstruct different aspects of past climate”, Maccali says.
Insights to early human occupations
One of the dripstones from Bloukrantz cave, located on the southern coast of South Africa, provided the team with new climate data for a time window of 3000 years during the last glacial period – from around 45,000 years ago. They used different methods that confirmed the average air temperature for this period of 18.8 ± 0.5 ◦C, which was slightly warmer compared to the present day, possibly because the sea level was lower, and the site was further away from the coastline than today. In addition, we could show, again based on multiple methods, that rainfall was highly variable with repeated drying events.
“Combining these insights, our study was able to increase confidence in the methods that were being used and further work will likely provide a detailed picture of the climate around the early human occupations during a crucial time period in South Africa”, Maccali says.
While many people want to achieve major long-term goals – such as improving their diet, quitting smoking or adopting a more sustainable lifestyle – they often find it difficult to do so. Is it all down to a lack of self-discipline? No, it’s not, according to social psychologist Professor Wilhelm Hofmann from Ruhr University Bochum, Germany. For a review article in Nature Reviews Psychology, Hofmann has analyzed numerous research studies and highlighted the extent to which the physical and social environment influence individual behavior. He criticizes the fact that many psychological studies still tend to focus on the individual while ignoring crucial structural factors. The article was published online on November 20, 2023.
Environmental factors have enormous impact on decisions
Traditional approaches such as self-determination theory focus on personal autonomy. This means that an individual’s freedom of choice must be preserved at all costs. “The public policy recommendations that result from this are to make no restrictions, provide sufficient information about the identified risks and side effects of the various options and then trust that people will make the right decisions and act appropriately,” says Hofmann. But this formula doesn’t work.
To illustrate this, the Bochum-based psychologist cites the example of an eco-conscious consumer who’d like to reduce their meat consumption, but occasionally also finds themselves tempted by a meat dish. “In conventional psychology, this is regarded as a conflict within the individual,” he explains. If the person could only muster enough willpower, they would achieve their long-term goal. According to Hofmann, this view is misguided, because decisions are very much influenced by the environment: For example, if there are five meat dishes in the canteen, but only one vegetarian option – and the latter might even be more expensive. People also wish to conform to social norms: If many of your friends and relatives drive a big car, you’re more likely to want one yourself.
It’s not enough to hope for individual discipline
In his article, Hofmann combines psychological research with public policy research to illustrate that psychological research has implications for other areas and should take a broader view. In particular, he argues that we need to be more aware of the fact that people don’t have the power to shape many of their own environments.
“Many people try to live in a more sustainable manner, but fail to do so in reality,” says Wilhelm Hofmann. Unsustainable options are often cheaper, more visible and more available than sustainable ones. “Relying on individual discipline, willingness to make sacrifices and a sense of guilt won’t get us very far. We need to question and change the structures that contribute to social problems such as the overuse of natural resources and make sustainable behavior more difficult. And in order to achieve this, we need sound and effective political decisions.” Many people would like to see more regulation so that they no longer have to swim against the tide. Growing awareness of the problem, combined with the realization that some social challenges and crises can’t be solved through personal responsibility or free markets, is driving the desire for government intervention and solutions. In essence, society needs to agree on good rules in order to provide individuals with the best possible support on the path to the desired change towards greater sustainability.
Greater focus on the common good
“The accelerating climate crisis is the best example of how the unlimited exercise of personal consumer freedoms leads to negative consequences for society as a whole,” explains Wilhelm Hofmann. “We’ve forgotten to a certain extent to look at the collective benefit, i.e. the common good, and need to recognize the importance of good regulation once again. By this I mean that we need to agree on effective and fair rules that protect us from risks and that apply to everyone equally. Such as are standard practice in road traffic, for example.”
Still, the psychologist believes that individuals must do their part, too. “Everyone can take small steps and help shape their environment wherever possible. And once your own creative power as a citizen, employee or customer reaches its limits, you can advocate for people with decision-making power to take up the cause. We always have the power to influence,” he insists.
