Clean energy transition: Increasing global equity with finance

CMCC Foundation - Euro-Mediterranean Center on Climate Change

It is widely recognized that finance is one of the critical enablers of accelerating climate action. However, renewable energy deployment (particularly in developing countries) requires more financing than fossil fuel-based alternatives due to a combination of factors, such as higher upfront investment costs.

This means that finance itself can become a barrier to mitigation investment, which is particularly problematic in the context of energy justice—making renewable energy more widely accessible in low-income countries and communities. 

A new international research effort led by CMCC scientists tackles this issue by investigating how financial policies help ensure a just transition through a reduction in the cost of capital for energy technologies in the Global South. The paper quantifies the importance of financing cost on the equity and efficiency of the energy transition, empirically estimating the cost of capital for a range of technologies in different countries and then including them in five coupled energy-climate-economy models. This reference scenario is then compared to a fair-finance policy in which risk premia around the world reach those of mature economies by 2050. 

“In the fair-finance policy scenario, the quantity of renewable electricity generated in developing countries increases, leading to 30% of the renewable electricity needed in the Global South to keep global warming under 1.5°C and 10% of the fossil fuel reduction,” says Matteo Clacaterra, lead author of the study.

Furthermore, although the paper does show that the effects on mitigation in developing countries depend on the emissions scenario chosen—the higher the ambition, the cheaper the cost of mitigation, and the lower the ambition, the higher the carbon intensity reduction—it also reveals how, on aggregate, developing countries reduce their energy expenditure to GDP ratio by up to 5%. 

“All this increases global equity of the clean energy transition: inequality is reduced in per-capita renewable energy generation by 2-4%, and electricity also becomes cheaper by an average of 10% after mid-century,” continues Calcaterra, demonstrating how international convergence in the cost of capital for energy financing enables the greening of the energy system whilst at the same time increasing the justice of the transition.

These conclusions have important implications for policy choices, as they reveal that equalizing the cost of capital of the energy sector internationally can play a significant role in greening electricity generation, lowering the cost of mitigation and improving equity. However, what form those policies should take remains a critical avenue for future research.

“This research was necessary to further highlight the impact of financing costs on renewable energy development,” says Massimo Tavoni, director of the European Institute on Economics and the Environment at CMCC and co-author of the study. “We showed that fair financing is a key enabler of energy availability, affordability and equity at a global level. We hope that this research will help promote a fair and effective climate transition.”

 

For more information: 

CMCC authors lead the model intercomparison project (Matteo Calcaterra), contributed to the modeling work with the WITCH model (Matteo Calcaterra, Lara Aleluia Reis, Johannes Emmerling), wrote the first version of the paper and took care of the reviews (Matteo Calcaterra, Massimo Tavoni).

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Journal

Nature Energy

Article Publication Date

27-Sep-2024

 

Sloth survival under threat due to climate change, new study finds

PeerJ

 

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Image: Dr. Rebecca Cliffe

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Credit: Image: Dr. Rebecca Cliffe

A new PeerJ Life & Environment study has revealed that sloths, the famously slow-moving creatures of Central and South America, may face existential threats due to climate change. The research, conducted by scientists studying the metabolic response of sloths to rising temperatures, suggests that the energy limitations of these animals could make survival untenable by the end of the century, particularly for high-altitude populations.

The study, titled "Sloth Metabolism May Make Survival Untenable Under Climate Change Scenarios," investigates how two-fingered sloths (Choloepus hoffmanni), living in both highland and lowland regions, respond to varying ambient temperatures. Using indirect calorimetry, researchers measured oxygen consumption and core body temperature of sloths under conditions mimicking projected climate changes. Their findings indicate a troubling future for sloths, especially those residing in high-altitude areas.

Lead researcher Dr. Rebecca Cliffe explained, “Sloths are inherently limited by their slow metabolism and unique inability to regulate body temperature effectively, unlike most mammals. Our research shows that sloths, particularly in high-altitude regions, may not be able to survive the significant increases in temperature forecast for 2100.”

Key Findings:

• Temperature Sensitivity: Sloths from highland regions experience a sharp increase in their resting metabolic rate (RMR) as temperatures rise. In contrast, lowland sloths, while better adapted to higher temperatures, initiate metabolic depression as a survival mechanism when temperatures exceed their comfort zone, known as the "thermally-active zone" (TAZ).
• Climate Change Impact: By the year 2100, with projected temperature increases between 2°C and 6°C in sloth habitats, high-altitude sloths are predicted to face a severe metabolic burden. Their limited energy-processing ability, combined with minimal geographical flexibility, may prevent them from adjusting to the warming climate.
• Food Intake Constraints: Sloths' slow digestion rate, which is up to 24 times slower than other similar-sized herbivores, poses another challenge. Any increase in metabolic demand due to climate change cannot easily be met by increased food intake, making it difficult for sloths to maintain energy balance.

The most concerning aspect of the research is the fate of high-altitude sloths. Due to their restricted ability to migrate to cooler regions and limited metabolic flexibility, these populations could face extinction if temperatures continue to rise.

The study suggests that while lowland sloths may cope by shifting their ranges to higher altitudes, highland sloths are geographically constrained and may not have this option. This biological inflexibility, paired with the increased metabolic demand in warmer climates, could push these populations toward a survival crisis. The findings highlight the need for urgent conservation efforts to protect sloth populations, particularly those in high-altitude regions, from the impacts of climate change. The research team calls for further investigation into adaptive strategies and conservation policies that can help mitigate the risks sloths face in a rapidly warming world.

 

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Journal

PeerJ

DOI

10.7717/peerj.18168 

Article Title

Sloth metabolism may make survival untenable under climate change scenario

 

Climate change accelerates the vulnerability and loss of resilience of a key species for the Mediterranean ecosystem

Red gorgonians exposed to marine heatwaves decrease the ability to resist and recover from other disturbances

Peer-Reviewed Publication

University of Barcelona

 

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After a heatwave, shallower populations of P. clavata are less able to withstand and recover from other disturbances.

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Credit: Graciel·la Rovira, University of Barcelona

A study by the University of Barcelona has analysed the ability of red gorgonians (Paramuricea clavata), a key species for the Mediterranean marine ecosystem, to resist and recover after marine heatwaves. The results, published in the Journal of Animal Ecology, show that the increased frequency and intensity of these extreme weather events — one of the consequences of climate change — will make these populations more vulnerable to future disturbances, beyond global warming and heatwaves, raising their risk of extinction. This negative impact would have a serious effect on marine ecosystems, according to experts.

“Paramuricea clavata is a species that plays an essential role in a type of community endemic to the Mediterranean Sea, the coralligenous. These communities have a high associated diversity and represent approximately 10% of Mediterranean species. Therefore, a decrease in the resilience of these species, or even their extinction, can lead to major changes in the structure and functioning of the Mediterranean seabed”, warns Professor Pol Capdevila, from the Faculty of Biology and researcher at the UB’s Biodiversity Research Institute (IRBio), first author of the article. IRBio researchers Yanis Zentner, Graciela Rovira, Alba Medrano and Cristina Linares, together with Joaquim Garrabou, from the CSIC Institute of Marine Sciences, have also participated in the study.

Study in the natural parks of Port-Cros and Montgrí, the Medes Islands and Baix Ter

In the study, the researchers conducted long-term monitoring, from 1999 to 2022, of nine populations of red gorgonians located in the Montgrí, Medes Islands and Baix Ter Natural Park, and in the Port-Cros Natural Park, with the aim of finding out the resilience of these organisms to marine heatwaves. “The Mediterranean Sea has warmed faster than the global oceans, making it one of the regions most affected by marine heatwaves, events that are expected to increase in frequency, intensity, duration and extent, even under the most optimistic climate change scenarios. Understanding the resilience of marine species to the increase in these extreme events is therefore crucial for predicting their viability under future climate conditions”, note the authors of the paper.

The study shows that P. clavata populations exposed to heatwaves have lower resilience and slower recovery rates than populations that have not been exposed to these events. “These results suggest that increased heatwave frequency is likely to accelerate the extinction of shallower populations of P. clavata. And not only that: what we have observed is that, after suffering a heatwave, these populations are less able to resist and recover from other types of disturbances”, Capdevila remarks.
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This low resilience provides, according to the researchers, further evidence of the vulnerability of long-lived species to global change.

Similar effects in other areas of the Mediterranean

The researchers also suggest that this impact on P. clavata “is likely to be occurring in other Mediterranean locations as well”. For other coral species, the authors note that it is “likely that their resilience is also strongly affected by disturbance”, but they are more cautious. “It should be borne in mind that not all coral species have the same population dynamics. Paramuricea clavata is a species that is very dependent on the survival of its adult individuals, but this is not necessarily the case for other species. Therefore, our results are not necessarily extrapolable to coral species with faster population dynamics”, Capdevila adds.

The results contrast with the ecological memory hypothesis, i.e. the influence of past events on the current state of ecosystems. This hypothesis is based on studies conducted on the Great Barrier Reef, where it has been shown that the impact of heatwaves on corals can be lower if they have already been exposed to a heat wave the previous year. “In the context of the Great Barrier Reef, the ecological memory hypothesis predicts that populations that have survived previous waves of disturbance may be less affected by new heatwaves. However, our results seem to indicate that, with more heat waves, the resilience of these species to further disturbances is lower”, says Pol Capdevila.
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The researchers note that these differences may be since the mechanisms by which tropical and temperate corals achieve demographic resilience differ because of particular physiological and demographic characteristics.

Measures to minimize the impact on this species

Given these results, the experts propose measures to minimize the impacts on red gorgonian populations. “For example, at the local level, populations of this species could be protected through marine protected areas or by restricting recreational activities, such as diving, where these corals are found. On the other hand, on a larger scale, measures to minimize climate change should be implemented more effectively, as it would benefit not only this species, but many others”, they conclude.

  

In the study, the researchers analysed red gorgonians populations located in the Montgrí, Medes Islands and Baix Ter Natural Park, and in the Port-Cros Natural Park.

Credit

Graciel·la Rovira, University of Barcelona

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Journal

Journal of Animal Ecology

DOI

10.1111/1365-2656.14147 

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

Mediterranean octocoral populations exposed to marine heatwaves are less resilient to disturbances

Article Public

 

Ancient sunken seafloor reveals earth’s deep secrets

University of Maryland geologists discover a mysterious subduction zone deep beneath the Pacific Ocean, reshaping our understanding of Earth’s interior.

University of Maryland

 

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A map depicting the region where the discovery of an ancient seafloor was made.

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Credit: Jingchuan Wang, University of Maryland.

University of Maryland scientists uncovered evidence of an ancient seafloor that sank deep into Earth during the age of dinosaurs, challenging existing theories about Earth’s interior structure. Located in the East Pacific Rise (a tectonic plate boundary on the floor of the southeastern Pacific Ocean), this previously unstudied patch of seafloor sheds new light on the inner workings of our planet and how its surface has changed over millions of years. The team’s findings were published in the journal Science Advances on September 27, 2024.

Led by geology postdoctoral researcher Jingchuan Wang, the team used innovative seismic imaging techniques to peer deep into Earth’s mantle, the layer between our planet’s crust and core. They found an unusually thick area in the mantle transition zone, a region located between about 410 and 660 kilometers below the Earth’s surface. The zone separates the upper and lower mantles, expanding or contracting based on temperature. The team believes that the newly discovered seafloor may also explain the anomalous structure of the Pacific Large Low Shear Velocity Province (LLSVP)—a massive region in Earth’s lower mantle—as the LLSVP appears to be split by the slab.

“This thickened area is like a fossilized fingerprint of an ancient piece of seafloor that subducted into the Earth approximately 250 million years ago,” Wang said. “It’s giving us a glimpse into Earth’s past that we’ve never had before.”

Subduction occurs when one tectonic plate slides beneath another, recycling surface material back into Earth's mantle. The process often leaves visible evidence of movement, including volcanoes, earthquakes and deep marine trenches. While geologists typically study subduction by examining rock samples and sediments found on Earth’s surface, Wang worked with Geology Professor Vedran Lekic and Associate Professor Nicholas Schmerr to use seismic waves to probe through the ocean floor. By examining how seismic waves traveled through different layers of Earth, the scientists were able to create detailed mappings of the structures hiding deep within the mantle.

“You can think of seismic imaging as something similar to a CT scan. It’s basically allowed us to have a cross-sectional view of our planet’s insides,” Wang said. “Usually, oceanic slabs of material are consumed by the Earth completely, leaving no discernible traces on the surface. But seeing the ancient subduction slab through this perspective gave us new insights into the relationship between very deep Earth structures and surface geology, which were not obvious before.”

What the team found surprised them—material was moving through Earth’s interior much more slowly than previously thought. Wang believes that the unusual thickness of the area the team discovered suggests the presence of colder material in this part of the mantle transition zone, hinting that some oceanic slabs get stuck halfway down as they sink through the mantle.     

“We found that in this region, the material was sinking at about half the speed we expected, which suggests that the mantle transition zone can act like a barrier and slow down the movement of material through the Earth,” Wang explained. “Our discovery opens up new questions about how the deep Earth influences what we see on the surface across vast distances and timescales.”

Looking ahead, the team plans to extend their research into other areas of the Pacific Ocean and beyond. Wang hopes to create a more comprehensive map of ancient subduction and upwelling (the geological process that occurs when subducted material heats up and rises to the surface again) zones, as well as their effects on both deep and surface Earth structures. With the seismic data acquired from this research, Wang and other scientists are improving their models of how tectonic plates have moved throughout Earth’s history.

“This is just the beginning,” Wang said. “We believe that there are many more ancient structures waiting to be discovered in Earth’s deep interior. Each one has the potential to reveal many new insights about our planet’s complex past—and even lead to a better understanding of other planets beyond ours.”

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The paper, “Mesozoic intraoceanic subduction shaped the lower mantle beneath the East Pacific Rise,” was published in Science Advances on September 27, 2024.

This research was supported by NASA SSERVI Cooperative Agreement No. 80NSSC19M0216. This article does not necessarily reflect the views of this organization.

An illustrative diagram showing the ancient subducted 'slab' the team resolved at present day.  It has a direct impact on the large-scale lowermost mantle structures known as 'superplumes'.

Credit

Jingchuan Wang, University of Maryland.

Journal

Science Advances

DOI

10.1126/sciadv.ado1219. 

Method of Research

Imaging analysis

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Mesozoic intraoceanic subduction shaped the lower mantle beneath the East Pacific Rise.

Article Publication Date

27-Sep-2024

UK

Thousands support call against using weedkiller

Paul Murphy
BBC news

BBC
Campaigner Katie Teakle organised the petition against North East Lincolnshire Council's use of the chemical glyphosate


A woman who started a petition about the use of chemical weedkillers has been supported by more than 26,000 signatures.

Katie Teackle, from Cleethorpes, set it up after becoming concerned about North East Lincolnshire Council's (NELC) use of glyphosate to kill weeds on roadside verges.

The chemical is a powerful herbicide that kills most plants, but there is concern about its wider impact on bird and insect populations.

The BBC has contacted NELC for comment.

A council worker sprays chemicals on to weeds at the base of a tree


According to The Local Democracy Reporting Service, the petition begins: “Where are all the bees, insects and birds? Chattering sparrows, soaring swallows? How many butterflies have you seen this year? When was the last time you saw a wasp?”

It lays blame for declining biodiversity at least in part at the door of “the widespread use of toxic weedkillers”.

Ms Teakle is hoping that the council will urgently review its use of glyphosate.

"You have to lead by example and local authorities are in a great position of power," she said.

"There is a very real issue here and the council is best-placed to lead by example."


James Elliot, also known as The Canoe River Cleaner, is concerned about the impact of glyphosate on the wider environment


As well as a phase-out of use of glyphosate in favour of non-chemical alternatives, the petition also calls for the council to work with Pesticide Action Network UK (PAN), which supports local authorities to become pesticide free.

The campaign is being supported by Grimsby-based environmental campaigner James Elliot, who is also known as The Canoe River Cleaner.

Mr Elliot is concerned about the impact chemicals may have on the insect life and wildlife in his local waterway The River Freshney.

"The numbers speak for themselves, I think it's resonated with people," he said.

Mr Elliot added that he is confident his local authority will act to reduce or phase-out the use of the weedkiller.

He said: "Obviously, we need the council to be on board because they are using glyphosate at the moment, but I think they will be."

 

Household recycling rates remain at 44% in the UK

27th September 2024

UK household recycling rates remained at 44% in 2022, the same rate as in 2021, according to new figures released by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra).

The recycling rate for waste from households increased in all UK countries in 2022 except England; England was 43.4%, 49.2% in Northern Ireland, 42.1% in Scotland, and 56.9% in Wales.

The UK generated 191.2 million tonnes of total waste in 2020, with England responsible for 85% (162.8 million tonnes) of the UK total.

In 2023, 64.8% of UK packaging waste was recycled, increasing from 62.4% in 2022.

Reacting to the figures, Julie Fourcade, Head of External Affairs at FCC Environment, said: “FCC Environment is deeply concerned by today’s announcement that the UK’s recycling rate has continued to flatline, with only 44% of household waste in England being recycled.

“This trend highlights that more needs to be done in terms of education, infrastructure, and regulation to ensure that we are diverting waste away from landfill and helping to foster a circular economy.”

The Chartered Institution of Wastes Management reaction

CIWM’s Director of Innovation and Technical Services Lee Marshall said: “The recycling rate in England has stagnated recently, which is disappointing.

“This is largely due to delays in rolling out Consistent Collections and Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR). Had these reforms been implemented, we would already see new services in place which would be driving up recycling rates.

“Local authorities are working hard to maintain current recycling levels, but they urgently need funding through EPR and clarity on the final details of food waste collections to plan and deliver the necessary service changes.

“One of CIWM’s key asks of the new government is to prioritise the delivery of Consistent Collections and EPR.

“These latest figures support this call and underline the importance of swift action to ensure these critical policies are progressed without further delay.”

Key figures

UK biodegradable municipal waste (BMW) sent to landfill decreased to 6.3 million tonnes in 2022 from 6.7 million tonnes in 2021.

It is estimated that the UK generated 40.4 million tonnes of commercial and industrial (C&I) waste in 2020, of which 33.7 million tonnes (83%) was generated in England.

Defra estimates that the UK generated 59.4 million tonnes of non-hazardous construction and demolition (C&D) waste, of which 55.0 million tonnes was recovered, in 2020.

England generated 53.9 million tonnes of this waste, of which 50.3 million tonnes was recovered.

In 2022, England generated 63.0 million tonnes of non-hazardous C&D waste, of which 59.4 million tonnes was recovered.

Britain Has Highest Electricity Prices in the World

by Will Jones
27 September 2024


British companies are paying the highest electricity prices of anywhere in the developed world, official data have shown, after costs more than doubled in the past five years. The Telegraph has the details.

The cost of power for industrial businesses has jumped 124% in just five years, according to the Government’s figures, catapulting the U.K. to the top of international league tables.

It is now about 50% more expensive than in Germany and France, and four times as expensive as in the U.S.

The figures will fuel concerns about the future of U.K. industry amid warnings that high energy prices are crippling domestic manufacturers.

They underline the challenge facing Ed Miliband, the Energy Secretary, who wants industrial businesses to switch away from gas to electricity-powered processes.

Frank Aaskov, the Director of Energy at lobby group U.K. Steel, said: “High industrial electricity prices have for too long damaged the competitiveness of U.K. steelmaking, and many in the wider manufacturing sector will be feeling the same pressure our steel companies do.

“The Government should tackle steep electricity costs and make the U.K. a fruitful place to invest, while enabling growth and improving competitiveness.”

The electricity price paid by U.K. industrial users per kilowatt hour rose to 25.85p in 2023, the data show. That compares to 10.43p as recently as five years earlier and 8.89p a decade ago.

It also far outstripped European rivals and allies such as the U.S. and Canada. The equivalent price was 17.84p in France, 17.71p in Germany and 6.48p in the U.S.

Across all the 31 member countries of the International Energy Agency, which collates the data, the median price was 17.70p per kilowatt hour, with Britain’s price higher than any other country.

Retired police dog's life saved thanks to charity

Holly Phillips
BBC News

Submitted
Retired police dog Neo needed life-saving surgery


A retired police dog who needed life-saving surgery is now recovering after a charity stepped in to cover the costs of his emergency operation.

Nine-year-old German Shepherd Neo served with Humberside Police and was adopted by a fellow officer when he retired.

Earlier this month, he needed life-saving surgery after falling ill.

Neo's owner, Rob James, said he had "never seen such kindness and felt such relief" after Thin Blue Paw Foundation stepped in to pay the £4,000 bill.

Mr James, from Hornsea in East Yorkshire, was a firearms officer at the time he met Neo, who was handled by one of his best friends in the police force.

He adopted him in 2018 after he retired from police dog duties.

He said: “I knew Neo had been a successful and formidable working dog and felt my lifestyle would suit him well.

"I’ve kept German shepherds since the age of 12 and had lost one of my dogs just a few years earlier.

“Neo loves living in the countryside so he gets long walks and there are lots of places he can swim."

Submitted
Neo is recovering at home with owner Rob James and his family

Mr James was working on 8 September when his partner called him to say Neo was making strange noises and that he was trying but struggling to be sick.

While on his way to the vets, Mr James contacted Thin Blue Paw to see if they could help.

Neo was suffering from gastric torsion – where the stomach twists and fills with gas or fluid.

He needed surgery immediately to save his life and the charity, which supports working and retired police dogs, agreed to cover the costs.

“To my astonishment, the charity said it would step in and, in doing so, saved Neo’s life," Mr James said.

"I'm still beyond words.

“Neo is doing really well after his surgery. I find myself thinking a lot about how life might have turned out if the foundation hadn’t stepped in to help with the costs of this surgery.

"I'm so pleased he’s been given a chance."

He has now pledged to raise money for the charity to thank them for supporting him and Neo.

Thin Blue Paw Foundation trustee Kieran Stanbridge said: “We’re so pleased we were able to step in at Neo and Rob’s time of need, and that Neo is now back at home with his family recovering well.”

Thousands of seals making Thames Estuary their home


A seal rests on the banks of the Thames in Hammersmith in March 2021

Almost 600 harbour seals and 3,000 grey seals now live in the Thames Estuary, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), which runs London Zoo, has revealed.

Taking to the air and sea, ZSL conducted surveys by observing the seals from boats along the estuary and from RAF training flights above the coastline between Suffolk and Kent.

ZSL’s Hannah McCormick, who led the survey, said: “During the 2024 seal survey, we counted 431 harbour seals and 714 grey seals laying out on sandbanks along the Thames.

"By combining these with the number of seals estimated to stay in the water during the counts, we can estimate that there are a total of 599 harbour seals and 2,988 grey seals."
ZSL
Conversationist Hannah McCormick during the seal survey


“Seals are playful but shy creatures, so using a long-range lens to take photos from a distance allows us to maximise our counting accuracy while also minimising any disturbance – helping us build the strongest possible understanding of how these native species are faring in the Thames, and highlighting the importance of protecting this ecosystem.”

The count was completed over several days in August during the moulting season for the harbour seals.

Over the course of those weeks, the seals would have spent much of their day basking on the estuary’s sandbanks, making it easier for the survey team to spot them.

The Thames is home to both harbour and grey seals, although harbour seals are the only one of the two to breed in the area.

ZSL
Seals spotted on sandbanks during the survey in August


This year’s survey was consistent with results from the last few surveys, with 692 harbour seals and 3,134 grey seals having been estimated in 2021.

Ms McCormick explained: “We’ve seen UK seals make an incredible recovery from the early 2000s, when high rates of distemper virus led to steep declines in numbers.

"Results since 2018 suggest there has been a decline in harbour seals, which has also been seen in other harbour seal colonies in the east of England."


This seal kept returning to the banks in Hammersmith, west London, for a week in 2021 - prompting attention from residents


She added: "While the causes of these declines remain unknown, experts are investigating potential factors and by keeping a close eye on these changes.

"We will continue to build our knowledge of seals in the Thames while contributing to long-term regional and national data on seals.”

A ZSL-led report previously revealed that although the Thames was declared "biologically dead" in1957, conservation efforts had led to it once again becoming home to a wide variety of British wildlife including seals, seahorses and critically endangered eels.

29,000 gambling ads in Premier League weekend, says research

Image source,Getty ImagesImage caption,
West Ham's match against Aston Villa contained close to 6,500 gambling messages, the researchers found

Natalie Pirks

Sports Correspondent

Tom Grundy

BBC Sport senior journalist

Publishe

The number of betting adverts during the opening weekend of the Premier League season almost trebled compared to last year, new research says.

Researchers analysed Premier League coverage in the UK across TV - including pitchside hoardings and shirt logos - as well as radio and social media.

They counted more than 29,000 gambling messages, a 165% increase on the opening weekend a year ago.

West Ham's match against Aston Villa contained close to 6,500 gambling messages - about 30 every minute.

The authors of the report - the University of Bristol business school, funded by a grant from the charity Gamble Aware - has called the industry's attempt to self-regulate "wholly inadequate and tokenistic".

They say their report shows fans and children are being put at risk because they are being exposed to gambling advertising.

The Betting and Gaming Council, which represents the gambling industry, criticised the research, saying it "fundamentally misunderstands both advertising, and the way in which it is strictly regulated".

But Peter Shilton, England's most capped male footballer and a former gambling addict, told the BBC the gambling industry is "out of control and can't regulate itself", and called for government action.

"Just a few months ago, a new code of conduct was published by the industry, external to curb marketing during football events, but the policy has had no impact on the volume whatsoever," said co-lead author Dr Raffaello Rossi.

"It’s clear that the industry's attempt to self-regulate is wholly inadequate and tokenistic. Despite having had years to put in place effective measures to protect consumers, the gambling industry continues to prioritise profit over safety."

The Premier League is working with its clubs on the implementation of the Code of Conduct for Gambling Related Agreements in Football, which was introduced at the start of this season.

Its clubs are required to adhere to all legal and regulatory requirements, via the Gambling Commission and the Advertising Standards Authority.

Former England goalkeeper Shilton, 75, had a gambling addiction for 45 years until seeking help about 10 years ago.

He says the new research "just shows [the gambling industry is] out of control". He added: "They can't regulate themselves, and it doesn't look as though anybody else is bothering to regulate them. It's another year gone by when you know it's got worse.

"We managed to get a start with the Premier League banning [sponsorship] on the front of shirts, but that was only just a small part of it.

"It's time now that the government step in and do something about it because it's been going on for so long now."

A government spokesperson said: "We recognise the impact harmful gambling can have on individuals and their families and are absolutely committed to strengthening protections for those at risk.

"Ministers are currently considering the full range of gambling policy, including on advertising and sponsorship, and will update in due course."

Last year, the Premier League clubs collectively agreed to withdraw gambling sponsorship from the front of clubs’ matchday shirts, starting from the end of the 2025-26 season.

How has the gambling industry responded?

The Betting and Gaming Council responded by saying that its members "take a zero tolerance approach to betting by children" and have introduced new age gating rules.

It adds that they commit 20% of TV, radio and digital advertising to safer gambling messaging, and provide funding to the UK's most popular sports, including £40m each year to the English Football League.

A BGC spokesperson said: "This research fundamentally misunderstands both advertising, and the way in which it is strictly regulated, while making a series of statements which are either misleading or incorrect.

“Betting advertising and sponsorship must comply with strict guidelines and safer gambling tools and signposts to help for those concerned about their betting, are regularly and prominently displayed."