Unlocking the journey of gold through magmatic fluids

By studying sulphur in magmatic fluids at extreme pressures and temperatures, a UNIGE team is revolutionising our understanding of gold transport and ore deposit formation

Université de Genève

 

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Solfatara on Volcano island near the Sicilian coast with elemental sulphur precipitating from volcanic gases originating from magmatic fluids.

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Credit: © Zoltán Zajacz

When one tectonic plate sinks beneath another, it generates magmas rich in volatiles such as water, sulphur and chlorine. As these magmas ascend, they release magmatic fluids, in which sulphur and chlorine bind to metals such as gold and copper, and transport these metals towards the surface of the Earth. As the extreme conditions relevant to natural magmas are very difficult to reproduce in the laboratory, the precise role of the different forms of sulphur in metal transport remains highly debated. However, an innovative approach by a team from the University of Geneva (UNIGE) has demonstrated that sulphur, in its bisulphide (HS-) form, is crucial for the transport of gold in magmatic fluids. These findings are published in Nature Geoscience.

When two tectonic plates collide, the subducting plate plunges into the Earth’s mantle, heats up and releases large amounts of water. This water lowers the melting temperature of the mantle, which melts under high pressure and temperatures exceeding a thousand degrees Celsius to form magmas. As the liquid magma is less dense than the rest of the mantle, it migrates towards the Earth’s surface.

‘‘Due to the drop in pressure, magmas rising towards the Earth’s surface saturate a water-rich fluid, which is then released as magmatic fluid bubbles, leaving a silicate melt behind” explains Stefan Farsang, a postdoctoral fellow at the Department of Earth Sciences at UNIGE’s Faculty of Science and first author of the study. Magmatic fluids are therefore composed partly of water, but also of dissolved volatile elements such as sulphur and chlorine. These two elements are crucial because they extract gold, copper and other metals from the silicate melt into the magmatic fluid, thus facilitating their migration towards the surface.

Several forms of sulphur

Sulphur can easily be reduced or oxidised, i.e. gain or lose electrons, a process known as redox. The redox state of sulphur is important because it affects its ability to bind to other elements, such as metals. However, one debate has divided the scientific community for more than a decade: what is the redox state of the sulphur present in the magmatic fluid that mobilizes and transports metals?

Zoltán Zajacz, associate professor in the Department of Earth Sciences at UNIGE’s Faculty of Science and coauthor of the study, explains: “A seminal paper in 2011 suggested that S3- sulphur radicals play this role. However, the experimental and analytical methods had several limitations, particularly when it came to reproducing relevant magmatic pressure-temperature and redox conditions, which we have now overcome.’’

Methodological revolution

The UNIGE team placed a quartz cylinder and a liquid with a composition similar to that of a magmatic fluid in a sealed gold capsule. The capsule was then put into a pressure vessel, which was then brought to pressure and temperature conditions characteristic of magmas emplaced in the Earth’s upper crust. ‘‘Above all, our setup facilitates flexible control of the redox conditions in the system, which wasn’t possible before,” adds Stefan Farsang.

 

During the experiments, the quartz cylinder is fractured, allowing the synthetic magmatic fluid to enter. The quartz then traps microscopic-sized droplets of fluid like those found in nature, and the form of sulphur in these can be analysed at high temperature and pressure by using lasers with an analytical technique known as Raman spectroscopy. While previous spectroscopic experiments were typically run up to 700 °C, the UNIGE team succeeded in raising the temperature to 875 °C characteristic of natural magmas.

Bisulphide as a transporter

The study shows that bisulphide (HS-), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S) and sulphur-dioxide (SO₂) are the major sulphur species present in the experimental fluids at magmatic temperatures. The role of bisulphide in metal transport was already well documented in lower-temperature so-called hydrothermal fluids that originate from the higher-temperature magmatic fluids. However, bisulfide was thought to have very limited stability at magmatic temperatures. Thanks to their cutting-edge methodology, the UNIGE team was able to show that in magmatic fluids too, bisulphide is responsible for transporting most of the gold.

‘‘By carefully choosing our laser wavelengths, we also showed that in previous studies, the amount of sulphur radicals in geologic fluids was severely overestimated and that the results of the 2011 study were in fact based on a measurement artefact, putting an end to this debate,’’ says Stefan Farsang. The conditions leading to the formation of important precious metal ore deposits have now been clarified. Since much of the world’s copper and gold production comes from deposits formed by magma-derived fluids, this study
may contribute to their exploration by opening up important perspectives for understanding their formation.

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Journal

Nature Geoscience

DOI

10.1038/s41561-024-01601-3 

Method of Research

News article

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

'Sulfur species and gold transport in arc magmatic fluids'

Article Publication Date

16-Dec-2024

 

Butchered bones suggest violent  ‘othering’ of enemies in Bronze Age Britain

University of Oxford

 

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Examples of cranial trauma. Top) perimortem injury to the left posterior of the frontal bone (a), cutmarks can also be seen on the frontal bone (b) and patinated bevel of the internal cranial surface is apparent around the injury (c); middle) cranium with a perforating injury to mid-frontal bone (d), a closer view shows radiating fracture lines (e) and the internal view shows patinated bevel (f ); bottom) adult cranium (g), close inspection shows cutmarks running along the mid-frontal (h) and a perimortem blunt force fracture to the conjoining right frontal bone fragment (i) Images by Schulting et al. Antiquity, December 2024.

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Credit: Schulting et al. Antiquity, December 2024.

More images and a preview of the paper can be found here: https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1yMsUjDe7xuLWDCNgPH0XIX6dZtHkX2_c?usp=sharing

• Analysis of the remains of at least 37 individuals from Early Bronze Age England finds they were killed, butchered, and probably consumed before being thrown down a 15m-deep shaft.
• It is the largest-scale example of interpersonal violence from British prehistory.
• The treatment of the remains was likely a means to dehumanise or ‘other’ the victims.
• This massacre was probably revenge for a perceived offense, implying a cycle of violence and questioning the idea that Early Bronze Age Britain was relatively peaceful.

Archaeologists have analysed over 3000 human bones and bone fragments from the Early Bronze Age site of Charterhouse Warren, England, concluding that the people were massacred, butchered, and likely partly consumed by enemies as a means to dehumanise them.

There have been hundreds of human skeletons found in Britain dating between c.2500-1500 cal. BC, however direct evidence for violent conflict is rare.

“We actually find more evidence for injuries to skeletons dating to the Neolithic period in Britain than the Early Bronze Age, so Charterhouse Warren stands out as something very unusual”, states lead author of the research, Professor Rick Schulting from the University of Oxford. “It paints a considerably darker picture of the period than many would have expected.”

In the 1970s, the scattered bones of at least 37 individuals were discovered in a 15m-deep shaft at Charterhouse Warren, Somerset. They were a mix of men, women, and children, suggesting the assemblage was representative of a community.

Unlike most contemporary burials, the skulls display evidence of violent death from blunt force trauma. To uncover the mystery of what happened to these people, researchers from several European institutions analysed the bones. Their results are published in the journal Antiquity. 

The researchers found numerous cutmarks and perimortem fractures (made around the time of death) on the bones, suggesting that they were intentionally butchered and may have been partly consumed. But why would people in Early Bronze Age Britain cannibalise the dead?

At the nearby Palaeolithic site of Gough’s Cave in Cheddar Gorge, cannibalism was likely a form of funerary ritual. Charterhouse Warren is different, however. Evidence for violent death, with no indication of a fight, implies the victims were taken by surprise. It is probable they were all massacred, and the butchery was carried out by their enemies.

Were they killed for food? This is unlikely. There were abundant cattle bones found mixed in with the human ones, suggesting the people at Charterhouse Warren had plenty to eat without needing to resort to cannibalism.

Instead, cannibalism may have been a way to ‘other’ the deceased. By eating their flesh and mixing the bones in with faunal remains, the killers were likening their enemies to animals, thereby dehumanising them.

What events led to this dramatic act of violence? Resource competition and climate change don’t seem to have exacerbated conflict in Britain at this time, and there is  currently no genetic evidence to suggest the co-existence of communities with different ancestries that could have resulted in ethnic conflict.

This suggests that the conflict was caused by social factors. Perhaps theft or insults led to tensions, which escalated out of proportion. Evidence for infection with plague in the teeth of two children indicates disease may have also exacerbated tensions.

“The finding of evidence of the plague in previous research by colleagues from The Francis Crick Institute was completely unexpected”, says Professor Schulting. “We’re still unsure whether, and if so how, this is related to the violence at the site”.

Ultimately, the findings paint a picture of a prehistoric people for whom perceived slights and cycles of revenge could result in disproportionally violent actions. This situation is, unfortunately, familiar from more recent times.

“Charterhouse Warren is one of those rare archaeological sites that challenges the way we think about the past”, Professor Schulting concludes. “It is a stark reminder that people in prehistory could match more recent atrocities and shines a light on a dark side of human behaviour. That it is unlikely to have been a one-off event makes it even more important that its story is told.”

 

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Notes for editors

‘The darker angels of our nature’: assemblage of butchered Early Bronze Age human remains from Charterhouse Warren, Somerset, UK - Rick J. Schulting, Teresa Fernández-Crespo, Javier Ordoño, Fiona Brock, Ashleigh Kellow, Christophe Snoeck, Ian R. Cartwright, David Walker, Louise Loe & Tony Audsley

https://doi.org/10.15184/aqy.2024.180

Right hemi-mandible of child aged about 10 years (a) with detail of cutmarks on the ascending ramus (b). Image credit: Schulting et al. Antiquity, December 2024

Cutmarks on distal left humerus. Image credit: Schulting et al. Antiquity, December 2024.

Bones showing damage attributed to possible human chewing—from left to right: metatarsal 1, metatarsal, clavicle, metatarsal. Image credit: Schulting et al. Antiquity, December 2024.

About

ABOUT ANTIQUITY

Antiquity is an international peer-reviewed journal of world archaeology, published six times a year and edited by Dr Robert Witcher. The journal was founded by O.G.S. Crawford in 1927 and is currently edited in the Department of Archaeology at Durham University (head: Professor Tom Moore). The journal is published in partnership with Cambridge University Press (CUP).

Antiquity website: http://www.antiquity.ac.uk  

CUP Cambridge Core page: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/antiquity

Twitter: https://twitter.com/AntiquityJ  

Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/AntiquityJournal/  

ABOUT CAMBRIDGE JOURNALS

Cambridge University Press publishes over 350 peer-reviewed academic journals across a wide spread of subject areas, in print and online. Many of these journals are leading academic publications in their fields and together form one of the most valuable and comprehensive bodies of research available today.

For further information about Cambridge Journals, visit: http://journals.cambridge.org  

ABOUT CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge. It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of education, learning and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

Its extensive peer-reviewed publishing lists comprise 45,000 titles covering academic research, professional development, over 350 research journals, school-level education, English language teaching and bible publishing.

Playing a leading role in today’s international market place, Cambridge University Press has more than 50 offices around the globe, and it distributes its products to nearly every country in the world.

For further information about Cambridge University Press, visit: http://cambridge.org

About the University of Oxford

Oxford University has been placed number 1 in the Times Higher Education World University Rankings for the ninth year running, and ​number 3 in the QS World Rankings 2024. At the heart of this success are the twin-pillars of our ground-breaking research and innovation and our distinctive educational offer.

Oxford is world-famous for research and teaching excellence and home to some of the most talented people from across the globe. Our work helps the lives of millions, solving real-world problems through a huge network of partnerships and collaborations. The breadth and interdisciplinary nature of our research alongside our personalised approach to teaching sparks imaginative and inventive insights and solutions.

Through its research commercialisation arm, Oxford University Innovation, Oxford is the highest university patent filer in the UK and is ranked first in the UK for university spinouts, having created more than 300 new companies since 1988. Over a third of these companies have been created in the past five years. The university is a catalyst for prosperity in Oxfordshire and the United Kingdom, contributing £15.7 billion to the UK economy in 2018/19, and supports more than 28,000 full time jobs.

---

Journal

Antiquity

DOI

10.15184/aqy.2024.180 

Article Title

‘The darker angels of our nature’: Early Bronze Age butchered human remains from Charterhouse Warren, Somerset, UK

Taiwanese artist creates a gun that freezes her tears and fires them at those who hurt her

ByMahipal Singh Chouhan

Dec 17, 2024 

Taiwanese artist turned frustration into creativity, creating a tear gun that fires icy projectiles at those who upset her.

In a remarkable blend of art and emotion, a Taiwanese artist has created a tear gun that transforms her tears into icy projectiles, aimed at those who upset her. The inventive idea emerged from a heated argument with her teacher over an assignment, which left her feeling powerless and frustrated.

Taiwanese artist crafted a tear gun that uses frozen tears as projectiles. (Instagram/fei_studio_)

Tears turned to ammunition

Yi Fei Chen, who grew up in Taiwan, where challenging authority is often frowned upon, struggled to express her emotions during confrontations. “I had a confrontation with my teacher, but I didn’t really agree with him. I felt like I couldn’t speak up. I was frustrated and angry. Then the tears came," Chen shared with Asia One.

Instead of letting her tears be a sign of defeat, inspiration struck. She wondered, “What if this happens again? How can I change the situation?" That thought sparked the idea for the tear gun.

Chen’s creation eventually became her graduation project while studying in the Netherlands. Over three intense months, she designed the prototype that could literally shoot back.

How it works

The tear gun’s mechanism is as fascinating as its concept. The device collects tears, freezes them within 20 seconds using carbon dioxide stored in a high-pressure bottle, and launches them as tiny ice bullets using a spring-loaded system.

Interestingly, Chen had to pitch this very project to the teacher she had originally argued with. To her surprise, he was impressed. “He was quite happy with the result, even though it was something created against him," Chen revealed.

Years after its inception in 2016, Chen continues to refine her tear-powered invention, which has captured attention across the globe.

Social media buzz

A pinned post on Chen’s Instagram profile showcases a visual of the tear gun in action. The quirky yet profound device has left social media users intrigued, with some expressing admiration for her creativity.

Check out the post here:

One user wrote, “This is art at its finest. Emotional yet powerful!” Another commented, “Turning tears into strength—what a brilliant concept!” A third chimed in, “I’ve never seen anything like this before. Absolutely mind-blowing.”

Other comments ranged from curiosity to humour, with one saying, “Imagine explaining this to your future kids!” and another adding, “When life gives you tears, make tear bullets.”

 

Australian state proposes restrictions on protests to tackle rising antisemitism

Tue, 17 Dec, 2024 - 07:26

Rod McGuirk, Associated Press

An Australian state government has proposed new restrictions on protesters as a response to rising antisemitism, including a ban on demonstrations outside places of worship.

Victoria premier Jacinta Allan proposed the new laws after arsonists damaged a Melbourne synagogue earlier this month.

A week before the attack in the Melbourne suburb of Ripponlea, protesters in the neighbouring state of New South Wales prevented worshippers from leaving a synagogue in Sydney.

People gather outside the fire damaged Adass Israel Synagogue in Melbourne (Con Chronis/AAP Image via AP)

“That’s not peaceful protest. It’s menacing behaviour,” Ms Allan said.

“Antisemitism is a cancer and we must leave no stone unturned to fight the evil of antisemitism, to fight the evil of this racism in all of its forms and also to continue to work to help heal our multicultural community, to help build on that social cohesion and continue to support our strong, united Victoria,” she added.

The new laws would protect the right of people to “gather and pray free from fear, harassment and intimidation”, her office added in a statement.

The proposed laws, which will be voted on by the Victorian state parliament early next year, would establish safe access areas around places of worship and prohibit disturbances of religious gatherings.

The laws would also ban protesters from flying flags and displaying symbols of groups listed by Australia as terrorist organisations.

Face masks used by protesters to conceal their identities and protect against capsicum spray would also be banned.

Media wait outside a police cordon at a street where houses were vandalised with anti-Israel slogans (Mark Baker/AP)

Anti-Defamation Commission chair Dvir Abramovich, a leading opponent of antisemitism in Australia, welcomed the proposed law.

“Today, the Victorian government has declared war on hate and antisemitism — and it’s about time,” Dr Abramovich said in a statement.

“Victoria has drawn a line in the sand and sent a thunderous message to the hate-mongers, the graffiti cowards, the firebombers, and the social media trolls – your days of terrorising our communities are over,” he added.

The arson attack on Adass Israel Synagogue on December 6 marked an escalation in targeted assaults in Australia since the war between Israel and the militant Hamas group started over a year ago in the Gaza Strip.

Australian authorities have declared the Ripponlea attack a terrorist act, which increases the resources available to investigators.

SOUTH SUDAN

Fishermen stop work to protest government order reducing fish prices

December 17, 2024 JUBA CITY

The leaders of the fishing community in Lakes State’s Awerial County said they have suspended fishing activities after the government forced them to sell fish at lower prices.

According to the local order from Mingkaman Town Council this week, a big fish that was selling at SSP 13,000 was reduced to 7,000.

However, the order upset the fishermen who opted to now fish for domestic consumption only.

Abiar Chuti, the leader of the fishermen in Ahou, told Radio Tamazuj on Monday that the order was unfair to them as they buy other food items at higher prices in the market.

“I told the government last time when they brought the order to us that we will comply with this order only when you reduce the prices in the market so that we will be able to buy maize flour and beans at affordable prices,” he explained. “As we talk now, 10 Kg of maize is still selling at SSP 28,000 and 20 Kg at 60,000. This has become a burden on us and we decided to suspend fishing until we are sure that the market is fairly set for all.”

Another leader of fishermen, Alek Biar Angok, said the government needs to survey market prices and agree with traders before coming up with an order to reduce the fish prices.

“If the government wants to regulate the prices, it should not be one-sided. We should be called together with the traders in the market so that we compare prices,” he said. “This will help the government to understand the market before coming up with the decision to reduce the prices that will fairly favor everyone.”

The action by the fishermen has affected more than ten restaurants that have been serving fresh fish as the only food to their customers.

The restaurant owners who spoke on condition of anonymity said the small quantity of fish they get from far-flung like Mariik and Pane Bang are expensive, but they cannot sell food at higher prices.

Meanwhile, travelers who always stop at Mingkaman market to enjoy fish have been struggling to get fresh fish for the last four days.

Currently, traders sell commodities at higher prices due to the depreciation of the South Sudanese Pound against the U.S. Dollar. 1 dollar is selling at SSP 3,900 in the Central Bank but it is SSP 5,200 in the parallel black market. 

A town council official in Awerial County, Deng Cuei, did not explain in the local order the method they used in reducing the fish prices.

Georgia marks 19th day of pro-EU protests

Protesters reiterate their call on the government to hold new parliamentary elections

Davit Kachkachishvili |17.12.2024 - 

TBILISI, Georgia

Georgia marked its 19th day of protests Monday against Prime Minister Irakli Kobakhidze's decision last month to suspend negotiations on the country's bid to join the European Union until 2028.

Angry demonstrators gathered in front of the parliament building in the capital Tbilisi, once again blocking traffic on Shota Rustaveli Avenue.

Carrying Georgian and EU flags, they reiterated their call for the government to hold new parliamentary elections.

The demonstrators also demanded the release of those detained during the incidents that occurred in the early days of the protests.

On Nov. 28, Kobakhidze announced that in response to European political interference and the alleged use by some EU officials of financial aid as a tool for political manipulation that Georgia would suspend its EU accession talks until 2028, although it would continue working toward EU membership by 2030.​​​​​​​

The decision sparked outrage, with thousands of protesters taking to the streets of Tbilisi.

 Ireland Returns Mummy and Ancient Artifacts to Egypt

ByChristopher Gomez

December 16, 2024

Artifacts from ancient Egypt held in Ireland have been returned following President Abdel Fattah El Sisi’s visit to Dublin. Credits: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities, Denis Mortell Photography

Ancient Egyptian artifacts, including mummified remains and a sarcophagus, have been returned to Egypt following the visit of President Abdel Fattah El Sisi to Dublin.

 

This comes as part of Egypt’s efforts to recover artifacts around the world that embody the nation’s rich history. The return of the artifacts from Ireland is the culmination of more than a year and a half of ambitious persistence on Egypt’s end.

The artifacts were being held at the University of Cork, and the university displayed incredible support and cooperation throughout the reclamation process.

Ancient artifacts returned to their rightful home in Egypt

The Egyptian Minister of Tourism, Sharif Fathi, applauded efforts between all parties involved in the return of these precious items. Fathi cited the efforts of the Egyptian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the Egyptian embassy in Dublin, the Embassy of the State of Ireland in Cairo, and the University of Cork.

“My sincere thanks in advance for this kind gesture, which is an important step in strengthening the growing cultural and scientific relations between the two countries,” said Fathi in a post published on Facebook by the Egyptian Ministry of Tourism and Antiquities.

Dr. Mohamed Ismail, the Egyptian Secretary-General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities, said that the University of Cork had acquired the relics in the 1920s. He noted that the returned artifacts included a painted wooden sarcophagus containing mummified remains and a collection of limestone canopic jars, known to hold the embalmed viscera of the deceased in preparation for the afterlife.

Also returned were five pieces of painted cartonnage from the ancient Greek and Roman periods. Cartonnages were large sheets of linen or papyrus used for a variety of funerary purposes. They were utilized to produce masks that covered the head and shoulders of mummies or even the entirety of the sarcophagus. The material was flexible and sturdy enough to be wrapped tightly around the body, allowing the ancients to paint on them.

According to Ismail, the recovered items will be taken to the Egyptian Museum in Tahir Square for restoration purposes. The end goal will be to display them in the museum for a limited time in an exhibition of reclaimed ancient Egyptian artifacts.

Shaaban Abdel Jawad, the director-general of the General Department for Artifact Repatriation and supervisor of the Central Administration of Archeological Ports, said that the canopic jars belonged to an ancient priest from the 22nd dynasty known as Pa-Wer. This man was revered in ancient Egypt and was referred to as the “Father of the god” and “Guardian of the Fields of the god.”

India’s second-largest clean energy company ReNew plans to go private

/ Pexels - Wind Turbine Landscape Photography

By bno - Mumbai Office

 December 13, 2024

Key investors in ReNew Energy Global, India’s second-largest clean energy producer, have proposed to take the company private in a deal valued at $2.82bn, Reuters reported December 11 citing filings with the US Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC). The move comes as the company’s stock struggles, having dropped nearly 18% in value this year.

The consortium of major shareholders, including Canada Pension Plan Investment Board, UAE-based Masdar, chairman Sumant Sinha and a unit of the Abu Dhabi Investment Authority, collectively holding 64% voting rights, has offered to acquire shares at $7.07 each. This price represents an 11.5% premium over the December 10 closing price of $6.34 on Nasdaq.

In a letter attached to the SEC filing, the consortium described the offer as a way to provide shareholders with "immediate liquidity not available in the public markets."

If the board approves the offer, Japan’s leading utility JERA, which owned 11.7% of the company’s Class A shares as of July, would exit its stake. It remains unclear whether JERA still holds its full shareholding, Reuters reported.

Masdar stated that the proposal would offer fresh capital to bolster India’s energy transition. The consortium has assured that the deal will proceed without financing or disbursement conditions.

ReNew Energy Global operates a diverse portfolio of solar, wind, hydro and hybrid projects with a combined capacity of 10.3 GW across India. The company went public in 2021, with Goldman Sachs, an early investor, exiting its stake at the time.

Advanced economies have lower out-of-pocket healthcare spending

Canada has the best healthcare service in the world, The US is the only developed market that doesn't have universal healthcare. In between, the poorer the country, the more the population have to pay for healthcare. / bne IntelliNews

Feedly

By Florian Zandt for Statista December 16, 2024

According to the Global Health Expenditure Database by the World Health Organization (WHO), the global average out-of-pocket expenses related to health across 192 countries made up 30% of all health expenditures per capita in 2022, Statista reports.

This type of spending includes over-the-counter medicine, health aids or, as is the case for the US healthcare system, deductibles or co-pays. While most high and upper-middle-income countries have a lower share of out-of-pocket spending due to non-profit schemes, government transfers and comprehensive social health insurance, this type of spending makes up two-thirds or more of all health spending in thirteen countries and territories.

Among this group are Turkmenistan, Armenia, Afghanistan and Nigeria, each exhibiting an out-of-pocket spending share of more than 75%. The United States, which is the only advanced economy with no robust universal health coverage, has a share of eleven%. Looking at absolute instead of relative numbers, overall out-of-pocket spending grew to $471bn or around $1,400 per capita according to the NHE fact sheet published by the Centers for Medicaid & Medicare Services. Private health insurance spending in the United States constituted 29% of national health expenditure, amounting to $1.3 trillion.

A comparison between the United States and other leading economies reveals that the US has the same relative level of out-of-pocket spending as Germany and Japan, as well as 2% less than the United Kingdom and 2% more than France. China, the second-biggest economy after the United States, exhibits an out-of-pocket spending share of 34%, despite almost universal healthcare coverage. This is likely due to a lower level of benefits, necessitating covering larger health expenses with personal money.

 You will find more infographics at Statista