Inter-religious Practices and Saint Veneration in the Muslim World: Khidr/Khizr from the Middle East to South Asia
Book Editor(s):Michel Boivin, Manoël Pénicaud
Published Date:January 2025
Publisher:Routledge
Paperback:294 pages
ISBN-13:9781032478661
April 1, 2025
MEMO
Saint veneration and inter-religious practices in the Muslim world are often viewed through rigid sectarian or doctrinal lenses, often overlooking the lived religious experiences that blur these lines. Inter-religious Practices and Saint Veneration in the Muslim World: Khidr/Khizr from the Middle East to South Asia, edited by Michel Boivin and Manoël Pénicaud, challenges that narrow focus. The book explores how the enigmatic figure of Khidr (the ‘Green One’)—known variously as a prophet, wali, and guide—has long served as a spiritual link between religious communities, appearing in narratives across Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and even Sikhism, from Anatolia to the subcontinent.
The book opens with Hugh Talat Halman’s chapter, “The Sage of Inner Knowledge: Al-Khidr in Qur’an, Hadith, and Tafsir,” which delves into the Qur’anic narrative of Khidr’s encounter with Prophet Moses. This story, found in Surah Al-Kahf (18:60-82), portrays Khidr as a mystical guide imparting esoteric wisdom beyond conventional understanding. Halman examines how this narrative has been interpreted in Islamic exegesis, particularly within Sufi traditions, where the relationship between Khidr and Moses is seen as emblematic of the “master-disciple” dynamic. Khidr is also widely believed to have been a contemporary of Alexander the Great. As Halman summarises: “In the heart of al-Khidr and his story is a message of divine mercy and inner knowledge imparted by God that has moved countless people throughout the ages.”
In Shia narratives, Khidr’s role extends to interactions with other significant figures. For instance, some accounts suggest that Khidr accompanied Imam Al-Mahdi during a meeting with Sheikh Hassan ibn Muthlih Jamkarani in 984 CE, instructing the construction of the Jamkaran Mosque near Qom, Iran. A shrine is also dedicated to Khidr in Sarafand, Lebanon – although “There is no tomb inside… ‘because Al-Khidr is not yet dead.’”
The scope of the book is wide-ranging, covering historical, ethnographic, and textual perspectives. It captures not only the symbolic versatility of Khidr/Khizr but also how his veneration actively shapes shared sacred spaces and inter-communal practices.
Bedeviled: Jinn Doppelgangers in Islam & Akbarian Sufism
One particularly illuminating chapter is Michel Boivin’s own contribution on Khizr in Sindh, Pakistan. Drawing on fieldwork and local narratives, Boivin details how “Khaja Khizr” is venerated not just in Sufi shrines but also in Hindu communities, including during boat-blessing rituals where his role as the patron of water and guidance at sea is invoked. The inter-religious aspect is not an anomaly here; it is central to the practice. Boivin also notes that following the decline of the Mughal Empire, Khizr’s iconography “was incorporated into the Sikh aesthetic… like the representations of Guru Nanak.”
Another standout chapter is by Manoël Pénicaud, who examines pilgrimages to shared sacred sites in the Mediterranean, where Christian and Muslim communities have historically venerated Khidr Prophet Elijah (alongside Jews) and St. George together. As Pénicaud notes, “Khidr is revealed as a contact point with other religious systems than Islam,” and that of the shared saints and prophets in the region, is “the one who is the most capable of transformation and to absorb Biblical and Christian personages.”
The volume doesn’t romanticise syncretism—it also tackles the tensions and contestations that arise around shared saints. In the Balkans, for instance, the annual ritual of the meeting of Khidr and Ilyas (Hidrellez) is shown to be a site of both unity and negotiation, where different religious groups interpret and reframe the meaning of the practice according to their own worldviews.
A fascinating conceptual thread throughout the book is the role of Khidr in mediating between heaven and earth, life and death, Islam and “the other.” The authors consistently show that saint veneration—often dismissed as marginal—is in fact deeply political and socially meaningful, especially in contexts where formal religious boundaries are porous or contested.
Inter-religious Practices and Saint Veneration in the Muslim World is both timely and necessary. More than a study of Khidr/Khizr as a religious figure, it offers a lens into the lived religious practices that have historically blurred the boundaries between communities. At a time when sectarianism is often foregrounded in discussions of the Muslim world, this volume reminds us of a long-standing, often overlooked, tradition of shared sacred figures and spaces.
Anchored in solid scholarship and informed by fieldwork across regions, it sheds light on the local, often deeply personal, ways in which religion is experienced and negotiated. For researchers and general readers alike, it offers a meaningful engagement with the interconnected histories of belief that continue to shape religious life from the Middle East to South Asia.
Sufis in Medieval Baghdad
Book Author(s):Atta Muhammad
Published Date:October 2023
Publisher:I.B.Tauris
Hardback:192 pages
ISBN-13:9780755647590
Saint veneration and inter-religious practices in the Muslim world are often viewed through rigid sectarian or doctrinal lenses, often overlooking the lived religious experiences that blur these lines. Inter-religious Practices and Saint Veneration in the Muslim World: Khidr/Khizr from the Middle East to South Asia, edited by Michel Boivin and Manoël Pénicaud, challenges that narrow focus. The book explores how the enigmatic figure of Khidr (the ‘Green One’)—known variously as a prophet, wali, and guide—has long served as a spiritual link between religious communities, appearing in narratives across Islam, Christianity, Hinduism and even Sikhism, from Anatolia to the subcontinent.
The book opens with Hugh Talat Halman’s chapter, “The Sage of Inner Knowledge: Al-Khidr in Qur’an, Hadith, and Tafsir,” which delves into the Qur’anic narrative of Khidr’s encounter with Prophet Moses. This story, found in Surah Al-Kahf (18:60-82), portrays Khidr as a mystical guide imparting esoteric wisdom beyond conventional understanding. Halman examines how this narrative has been interpreted in Islamic exegesis, particularly within Sufi traditions, where the relationship between Khidr and Moses is seen as emblematic of the “master-disciple” dynamic. Khidr is also widely believed to have been a contemporary of Alexander the Great. As Halman summarises: “In the heart of al-Khidr and his story is a message of divine mercy and inner knowledge imparted by God that has moved countless people throughout the ages.”
In Shia narratives, Khidr’s role extends to interactions with other significant figures. For instance, some accounts suggest that Khidr accompanied Imam Al-Mahdi during a meeting with Sheikh Hassan ibn Muthlih Jamkarani in 984 CE, instructing the construction of the Jamkaran Mosque near Qom, Iran. A shrine is also dedicated to Khidr in Sarafand, Lebanon – although “There is no tomb inside… ‘because Al-Khidr is not yet dead.’”
The scope of the book is wide-ranging, covering historical, ethnographic, and textual perspectives. It captures not only the symbolic versatility of Khidr/Khizr but also how his veneration actively shapes shared sacred spaces and inter-communal practices.
Bedeviled: Jinn Doppelgangers in Islam & Akbarian Sufism
One particularly illuminating chapter is Michel Boivin’s own contribution on Khizr in Sindh, Pakistan. Drawing on fieldwork and local narratives, Boivin details how “Khaja Khizr” is venerated not just in Sufi shrines but also in Hindu communities, including during boat-blessing rituals where his role as the patron of water and guidance at sea is invoked. The inter-religious aspect is not an anomaly here; it is central to the practice. Boivin also notes that following the decline of the Mughal Empire, Khizr’s iconography “was incorporated into the Sikh aesthetic… like the representations of Guru Nanak.”
Another standout chapter is by Manoël Pénicaud, who examines pilgrimages to shared sacred sites in the Mediterranean, where Christian and Muslim communities have historically venerated Khidr Prophet Elijah (alongside Jews) and St. George together. As Pénicaud notes, “Khidr is revealed as a contact point with other religious systems than Islam,” and that of the shared saints and prophets in the region, is “the one who is the most capable of transformation and to absorb Biblical and Christian personages.”
The volume doesn’t romanticise syncretism—it also tackles the tensions and contestations that arise around shared saints. In the Balkans, for instance, the annual ritual of the meeting of Khidr and Ilyas (Hidrellez) is shown to be a site of both unity and negotiation, where different religious groups interpret and reframe the meaning of the practice according to their own worldviews.
A fascinating conceptual thread throughout the book is the role of Khidr in mediating between heaven and earth, life and death, Islam and “the other.” The authors consistently show that saint veneration—often dismissed as marginal—is in fact deeply political and socially meaningful, especially in contexts where formal religious boundaries are porous or contested.
Inter-religious Practices and Saint Veneration in the Muslim World is both timely and necessary. More than a study of Khidr/Khizr as a religious figure, it offers a lens into the lived religious practices that have historically blurred the boundaries between communities. At a time when sectarianism is often foregrounded in discussions of the Muslim world, this volume reminds us of a long-standing, often overlooked, tradition of shared sacred figures and spaces.
Anchored in solid scholarship and informed by fieldwork across regions, it sheds light on the local, often deeply personal, ways in which religion is experienced and negotiated. For researchers and general readers alike, it offers a meaningful engagement with the interconnected histories of belief that continue to shape religious life from the Middle East to South Asia.
Sufis in Medieval Baghdad
Book Author(s):Atta Muhammad
Published Date:October 2023
Publisher:I.B.Tauris
Hardback:192 pages
ISBN-13:9780755647590
December 15, 2023
MEMO
There is a tendency to think about public spheres as modern socio-political innovations. German philosopher Jurgen Habermas, who coined the idea of public sphere in the 1960s, said it was a place that lies between state and civil society, where common people critically and rationally debate matters of common interest. While other thinkers have debated the concept and what it means, there is a belief that it is a post-enlightenment and secular phenomenon. However, something called a public sphere can be observed in the premodern world and includes religious institutions. Medieval Baghdad was one such place where a public sphere existed, argues Atta Muhammad. Indeed there were multiple public spheres and a robust and critical engaged population – Atta Muhammad argues in his new book Sufis in Medieval Baghdad: Agency and the Public Sphere in the Late Abbasid Caliphate.
In the 11th century, Sufi movements became prominent in society, “the roles of the Sufis of Baghdad in religious, social and political spheres that brought tangible benefits to common people…These Sufi figures tried to fulfil a range of the religious, spiritual and material needs of common people through the charitable institutions of ribats or Sufi lodges.” These lodges weren’t the only public institutions available but they were among the most prominent, especially during the Seljuk and Ayyubids dynasties. Rich and poor were associated with these lodges and they provided common space where elites, scholars, sufis, merchants and common people could frequent. Interestingly, while many charitable and sufi lodges were founded and funded by elites, quite a large number were also funded and founded by members of the general public. They offered a range of charitable activities and were at the core of public life in Baghdad. One important way the ribats contributed to the expansion of public space in Islamic societies was through educational initiatives.
According to Muhammad, there were two types of Sufi educational institutions – one involves the master-disciple relationship, where a sheikh guides students in a range of topics from correct Islamic behaviour, belief, but also personal and professional training. Pupils could learn practical skills useful to their trades, useful things for their everyday life and spiritual training.
The second type were expanded ribat, madrasa and mosques, which disseminated knowledge to disciples and the masses. Students from across the world would come to these institutions to learn. “In the medieval Islamic world, travel for the sake of knowledge was a prevalent phenomenon.” These students would be from a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds, which demonstrates a growing educated public was emerging in medieval times. Libraries were also an important part of these lodges, which contained books for both scholars and wider society, indeed libraries were not only in mosques, schools and lodges, but were also added to hospitals and mausoleums too. There were also many female Sufi lodges that facilitated these developments among women too. Above all else, the lodges provided spaces for people to debate the issues of the day.
Religious institutions were not the only forms of public sphere available to people. “People belonging to a non-ruling elite created spaces through which they contributed to the public good…These groups and organisations could be called ‘civic associations’ as they were formed by religious, spiritual and mercantile groups with the aim of raising the living standards of their communities and towns.”
While contributing to the public good was everyone’s responsibility. This was highlighted by how, when a Turkish soldier tried to assault a Muslim woman outside the Jami’a Mosque in Baghdad in 1069, a riot broke out. The day after the riot, people gathered outside the Caliph’s palace and demanded justice. The Caliph was told about the situation and merchants and local notables went to resolve the situation.
Sufis in Medieval Baghdad provides a fascinating study and snapshot into civic life in medieval Baghdad. It is clear that a variety of civic and non-elite institutions played a crucial role in providing security, education and improving economic development alongside elite institutions and the government. Everyday people were very interested and actively involved with running their societies – regardless of whether or not the ruler wanted it or not. Muhammad has given a good overview of what tools were available to people and the theoretical framework that shaped their understanding. Sufis in Medieval Baghdad will be a welcome addition to growing scholarship on the role of the public in daily life and society in premodern times.
There is a tendency to think about public spheres as modern socio-political innovations. German philosopher Jurgen Habermas, who coined the idea of public sphere in the 1960s, said it was a place that lies between state and civil society, where common people critically and rationally debate matters of common interest. While other thinkers have debated the concept and what it means, there is a belief that it is a post-enlightenment and secular phenomenon. However, something called a public sphere can be observed in the premodern world and includes religious institutions. Medieval Baghdad was one such place where a public sphere existed, argues Atta Muhammad. Indeed there were multiple public spheres and a robust and critical engaged population – Atta Muhammad argues in his new book Sufis in Medieval Baghdad: Agency and the Public Sphere in the Late Abbasid Caliphate.
In the 11th century, Sufi movements became prominent in society, “the roles of the Sufis of Baghdad in religious, social and political spheres that brought tangible benefits to common people…These Sufi figures tried to fulfil a range of the religious, spiritual and material needs of common people through the charitable institutions of ribats or Sufi lodges.” These lodges weren’t the only public institutions available but they were among the most prominent, especially during the Seljuk and Ayyubids dynasties. Rich and poor were associated with these lodges and they provided common space where elites, scholars, sufis, merchants and common people could frequent. Interestingly, while many charitable and sufi lodges were founded and funded by elites, quite a large number were also funded and founded by members of the general public. They offered a range of charitable activities and were at the core of public life in Baghdad. One important way the ribats contributed to the expansion of public space in Islamic societies was through educational initiatives.
According to Muhammad, there were two types of Sufi educational institutions – one involves the master-disciple relationship, where a sheikh guides students in a range of topics from correct Islamic behaviour, belief, but also personal and professional training. Pupils could learn practical skills useful to their trades, useful things for their everyday life and spiritual training.
The second type were expanded ribat, madrasa and mosques, which disseminated knowledge to disciples and the masses. Students from across the world would come to these institutions to learn. “In the medieval Islamic world, travel for the sake of knowledge was a prevalent phenomenon.” These students would be from a wide range of socio-economic backgrounds, which demonstrates a growing educated public was emerging in medieval times. Libraries were also an important part of these lodges, which contained books for both scholars and wider society, indeed libraries were not only in mosques, schools and lodges, but were also added to hospitals and mausoleums too. There were also many female Sufi lodges that facilitated these developments among women too. Above all else, the lodges provided spaces for people to debate the issues of the day.
Religious institutions were not the only forms of public sphere available to people. “People belonging to a non-ruling elite created spaces through which they contributed to the public good…These groups and organisations could be called ‘civic associations’ as they were formed by religious, spiritual and mercantile groups with the aim of raising the living standards of their communities and towns.”
While contributing to the public good was everyone’s responsibility. This was highlighted by how, when a Turkish soldier tried to assault a Muslim woman outside the Jami’a Mosque in Baghdad in 1069, a riot broke out. The day after the riot, people gathered outside the Caliph’s palace and demanded justice. The Caliph was told about the situation and merchants and local notables went to resolve the situation.
Sufis in Medieval Baghdad provides a fascinating study and snapshot into civic life in medieval Baghdad. It is clear that a variety of civic and non-elite institutions played a crucial role in providing security, education and improving economic development alongside elite institutions and the government. Everyday people were very interested and actively involved with running their societies – regardless of whether or not the ruler wanted it or not. Muhammad has given a good overview of what tools were available to people and the theoretical framework that shaped their understanding. Sufis in Medieval Baghdad will be a welcome addition to growing scholarship on the role of the public in daily life and society in premodern times.
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