Boosting evolution: How humans unintentionally altered the skulls of pigs

Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg

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The two pigs on the left are the German refined Landschwein and the German Edelschwein. On the right is an animal that looks very similar to an original domestic pig.
 

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Credit: Uni Halle / Markus Scholz

Short snouts and a flat profile - within a span of 100 years, humans have significantly changed the shape of the skulls of German domestic pigs. According to a team from Martin Luther University Halle-Wittenberg (MLU), this is likely down to new breeding practices introduced at the beginning of the 20th century. Their findings have been published in the journal Royal Society Open Science. The researchers analysed 3D scans of 135 skulls of wild boars and domestic pigs from the early 20th and 21st centuries. Surprisingly, the same effects can even be observed in species that were kept separately.

Humans have been keeping pigs as livestock for several centuries. During this time, the animals have changed considerably. For example, they have become larger and have lost their black and brown bristles and darker skin tone. "The demand for pork in Germany increased significantly at the beginning of the 20th century and breeders were encouraged to optimise their animals. They needed them to grow quickly, provide good meat, and be fertile," explains Dr Renate Schafberg, Head of the Domestic Animal Collection at MLU. For the current study, she and Dr Ashleigh Haruda from Oxford University analysed 135 skulls from three different breeds: Deutsches Edelschwein, Deutsches Landschwein - and wild boars, who acted as a control group. The skulls were either from the early 20th century or were only a few years old. 

The two domestic pig breeds exhibited significant changes: the animals’ snouts became significantly shorter and flatter, while the skulls of the more contemporary animals no longer had a slightly outwardly curved forehead. "We didn’t expect such pronounced differences to appear within a span of only 100 years," says Schafberg. Remarkably, both breeds of domestic pig underwent the same changes, despite being kept separately. "These changes occurred even though breeders did not select the animals specifically for their skull shape, as this trait was not important for breeding. Instead, the changes appear to be an unintended by-product of selecting the desired traits," says Schafberg. 

Another reason for the alterations could be related to changes in the animals’ diet. Nutrition is known to influence the growth and development of animals. Today, pigs are mainly fed pellets that are high in protein. In contrast, the skulls of wild boars, who remain omnivores, have not undergone such changes. 

The findings demonstrate how strongly humans can influence the evolution of animals. "Charles Darwin assumed that long periods of time - millions of years - are required for major changes to take place. Our work is further proof that humans can greatly accelerate this process through selective breeding," says co-author Dr Frank Steinheimer, Head of the Central Repository of Natural Science Collections at MLU. 

 

The study was funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) and the European Research Council (ERC).

Study: Haruda A., Evin A., Steinheimer F., Schafberg R. Evolution under intensive industrial breeding: skull size and shape comparison between historic and modern pig lineages. Royal Society Open Science (2025). doi: 10.1098/rsos.241039

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Journal

Royal Society Open Science

DOI

10.1098/rsos.241039 

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

Evolution under intensive industrial breeding: skull size and shape comparison between historic and modern pig lineage

Article Publication Date

5-Feb-2025

Bar-Ilan University study reveals high vaccination rates among Israeli Arabs, offering insights for minority populations worldwide

 News Release 10-Feb-2025

Bar-Ilan University

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Prof. Michael Edelstein, Azrieli Faculty of Medicine, Bar-Ilan University

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Credit: Courtesy Bar-Ilan University

A study led by researchers at the Azrieli Faculty of Medicine of Bar-Ilan University has uncovered the unique reasons behind the high vaccination rates among Israeli Arabs, a phenomenon rarely observed among minority groups globally. The research, part of the large-scale RIVER-EU project to increase vaccine uptake in underserved EU communities, examined vaccination behaviors among minority populations across Europe and found that Israeli Arabs are far more likely to receive vaccines compared to the general population, particularly for childhood immunizations like HPV and MMR.

Led by Dr. Jumanah Essa-Hadad, Prof. Michael Edelstein, and a team of researchers from multiple countries, the study explores the critical factors contributing to this trend. One of the most significant findings is the high trust that Israeli Arabs place in the country’s healthcare system. Unlike other institutions in Israel, the healthcare system is perceived as professional, fair, and non-discriminatory. Dr. Essa-Hadad explains, “The Israeli healthcare system is known for its large number of Arab doctors and nurses, and their presence contributes to a sense of trust and willingness to vaccinate.”

The study, published in the Israel Journal of Health Policy Research, involved interviews with approximately 53 members of the Arab community, including healthcare workers, mothers, and teenagers. Researchers sought to understand why this group shows high vaccination rates, which contrast with certain vaccine hesitancy trends in other populations. Prof. Edelstein, an expert in public health and epidemiology of infectious diseases, notes, "The social norm within the Arab community strongly favors vaccinations, seeing them as routine and essential health practices, rather than controversial."

Furthermore, the study highlighted that vaccinations are often administered in accessible, supportive environments, with Arabic-speaking clinics offering flexible hours and play areas for children. This convenience and sense of comfort encourage Arab mothers to ensure their children are vaccinated.

The research also identified a key factor in vaccination success: the school setting. Teenagers who observed their peers getting vaccinated were more likely to follow suit, reinforcing vaccination as a community standard. Vaccines provided free of charge in Israel also made it easier for families to participate.

However, the study also points to the lower vaccination rates against COVID-19 in the Arab population, a discrepancy not directly addressed in the research but attributed to a difference in perception. While childhood vaccines are seen as familiar and standard, the COVID-19 vaccine was viewed as new and unfamiliar, leading to hesitancy.

The findings from this study position the Arab population in Israel as a model for promoting vaccination among other minority groups globally. The study also draws comparisons with successful vaccination efforts among Somali communities in Finland and Bengali populations in England. It suggests that trust in healthcare professionals, along with accessible and supportive healthcare infrastructure, are key ingredients for increasing vaccination rates in minority populations worldwide.

 

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Journal

Israel Journal of Health Policy Research

DOI

10.1186/s13584-024-00660-6 

Article Title

Enablers to high vaccination uptake among a disadvantaged minority population: a qualitative study of the Arab population of Israel

Promoter editing enables researchers to develop heat-tolerant cotton germplasms in response to global warming

Science China Press

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Figure 1:(A). Overexpressing plants of GhCKI showed obvious male sterility. (B) Substantially decreased the expression of GhCKI caused completely sterile in upland cotton. GhUBQ7 (Ghir_A11G011460) was used as control. (C). The distribution of sgRNA target sites cover around 2 kb of the promoter of GhCKI. (D). The accessible chromatin regions of GhCKI promoter in upland cotton anther at the tetrad stage under NT and HT at the single-cell level. The violin plots on the right represent the expression levels of GhCKI in each cell cluster. The single-cell level expression and chromatin accessibility of GhCKI were retrieved from the published integrated multi-omics atlas (RNA+ATAC) of upland cotton anthers. (E). Eight promoter-edited alleles of GhCKI were obtained, respectively. The deletion (−) base pairs are indicated by numbers. EP, epidermis; EN, endothecium; ML, middle layer; T, tapetum; MAM, microspore after meiotic; V, vascular region; C, connective; MC, meiotic cell; NT, normal temperature; HT, high temperature.

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Credit: ©Science China Press

Recently, the cotton genetic improvement team at Huazhong Agricultural University successfully developed new heat-resistant cotton lines by precisely editing the promoter region of the key high-temperature-responsive gene GhCKI. This breakthrough provides novel genetic resources and molecular breeding technologies for improving cotton's heat tolerance.

In earlier studies, the research team identified GhCKI as a key gene negatively regulating male fertility in cotton under high temperatures. Both overexpression and knockdown of GhCKI resulted in severe male sterility, limiting its application in breeding for heat tolerance. To overcome this limitation, the researchers shifted their focus to promoter editing, aiming to fine-tune the expression level or pattern of GhCKI. Using single-cell ATAC-seq data, they conducted an in-depth analysis of the chromatin accessibility in the promoter region of GhCKI. Combining this with the identification of two critical MYB transcription factor binding sites in the GhCKI promoter responsive to heat stress, the researchers designed 12 sgRNAs. They then applied CRISPR/Cas9 and CRISPR/Cpf1 genome editing technologies to precisely edit and delete specific regions of the GhCKI promoter.

Editing analysis revealed that most editing events resulted in large fragment deletions, and the edited plants were categorized into eight major genotypes (GhCKI-pro1 to GhCKI-pro8) based on their promoter modifications (Figure 1). These editing events reduced GhCKI expression levels, and further phenotypic analyses showed that mutants with excessively reduced GhCKI expression exhibited significant male sterility under normal temperatures. However, mutants with moderately reduced expression displayed normal anther development. Under high-temperature stress, two mutants (GhCKI-pro5 and GhCKI-pro6) maintained moderate GhCKI expression levels, showing normal anther development, significantly higher pollen viability, and improved anther dehiscence rates compared to wild-type plants, demonstrating a clear heat-tolerant phenotype (Figure 2).

Further investigations into the molecular regulatory mechanisms underlying the heat tolerance of GhCKI-pro5 and GhCKI-pro6 revealed that MYB transcription factors GhMYB73 and GhMYB4 bind to two MYB binding sites in the GhCKI promoter, positively regulating GhCKI expression under heat stress. When the MYB binding sites or their flanking sequences were deleted, the ability of GhMYB73 and GhMYB4 to activate GhCKI expression under high temperatures was hindered. This alteration allowed GhCKI-pro5 and GhCKI-pro6 to maintain normal anther development under extreme heat conditions (Figure 3).

This research not only highlights the critical role of the GhCKI gene in breeding heat-tolerant cotton but also lays a solid foundation for developing high-yield, high-quality, and heat-resistant cotton varieties in the future. Moreover, it offers a new strategy for enhancing heat tolerance in other crops by editing promoter regions of key genes, providing technical support to address agricultural challenges posed by global climate change.

This breakthrough represents another significant advancement by the Huazhong Agricultural University cotton team in the field of cotton heat tolerance research. In previous studies, the team utilized multi-omics technologies and molecular biology approaches to uncover the mechanisms of heat-induced sterility in cotton and identify heat-tolerant genes, providing theoretical, technical, and resource support for breeding heat-tolerant cotton varieties (Li et al., 2024a, Science China Life Sciences; Li et al., 2024b, Advanced Science; Li et al., 2023, Plant Communications; Khan et al., 2023, Plant Biotechnology Journal; Khan et al., 2023, Crop Journal; Ma et al., 2022, JIPB; Li et al., 2022, Plant Physiology; Ma et al., 2021, New Phytologist; Ma et al., 2018, Plant Cell).

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Journal

Science China Life Sciences

DOI

10.1007/s11427-024-2755-9 

Method of Research

Experimental study

WORD OF THE DAY

Higher pollinator diversity in calcareous grasslands

University of Würzburg

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A calcareous grassland in Karlstadt in Lower Franconia: the research team also determined the species diversity here.

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Credit: Carolin Biegerl / University of Wuerzburg

Biodiversity is under threat worldwide. While the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) estimated in 2019 that one million out of eight million species are threatened with extinction, more recent studies put the figure at twice as high: Two million animal and plant species are therefore on the brink of extinction unless something is done quickly to change their living conditions.

This loss can also be observed in the remaining species-rich habitats. The decline in natural areas, intensive agriculture, land sealing, pollutants and climate change are the main factors behind the fact that biodiversity in cultivated landscapes has been in decline for years.

Study published in Proceedings B

What measures can be taken to improve the living conditions of bees, bumblebees, butterflies and other pollinators? A research team from Julius-Maximilians-Universität Würzburg (JMU) has investigated this using the example of typical calcareous grassland areas in northern Bavaria. The study shows that smaller arable fields  and organically managed crops in the surrounding landscape are particularly suitable for positively influencing the diversity and number of various wild insects on nature conservation areas - including numerous endangered species.

Professor Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter, Chair of Animal Ecology and Tropical Biology (Zoology III) at JMU, Professor Andrea Holzschuh and Professor Jochen Krauss were responsible for this study, which was carried out by Carolin Biegerl, a doctoral student at the same chair. The team has now published the results in the current issue of the journal Proceedings of the Royal Society B. The study is part of the EU project Safeguard (Safeguarding European wild pollinators / https://www.safeguard.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de), which is coordinated by Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter.

“We investigated how the quality of local habitats, the form of agriculture and the design of the surrounding landscape can contribute to the conservation of pollinator diversity on valuable nature conservation areas,” says Carolin Biegerl, describing the background to the study. The study focused on 40 calcareous grassland areas in northern Bavaria - specifically in the Würzburg and Rhön regions as well as around Bayreuth and in Franconian Switzerland.

Several hundred species identified

There, the biologist determined the diversity of species and put this in relation to factors such as the size of the calcareous grasslands, their interconnectedness and the type and quality of the adjacent agricultural land - an aspect that has been neglected by research to date, she says.

For over five months, Carolin Biegerl and Benjamin Tanner walked across the 40 selected areas in the mornings and afternoons, collecting, identifying and counting bees, hoverflies and butterflies. They also determined the abundance and density of flowers and the number of nesting sites.

The result: “In total, we were able to identify 231 wild bee species, 90 butterfly species, 62 hoverfly species and 274 flowering plant species on the 40 calcareous grassland areas,” says Biegerl. Almost a quarter of these wild bee species and a third of the butterfly species are endangered according to the Bavarian Red List.

Using these figures, the research team was able to determine which factors have an impact on species diversity. “The greatest impact on solitary bees, butterflies and the abundance of flowers was the size of the calcareous grassland,” explains Andrea Holzschuh. An increase in this area also leads to an increase in the species richness of solitary bees and butterflies. The endangered species among them benefit particularly strongly from this. The abundance of flowers also increases as a result. Conversely, the number of bees on the calcareous grasslands decreases by a good third if the average size of the adjacent arable fields increases by one hectare.

Organic farming has a positive effect

A positive effect can be observed when adjacent fields are cultivated according to the principles of organic farming. “If only an additional ten percent of the annual arable land was farmed organically, the abundance of bumblebees increased by ten percent and the abundance of endangered butterflies on the valuable nature conservation areas by 20 percent,” says the scientist.

“Overall, the study shows that an improvement in habitat quality and adapted management of the surrounding landscape can be effective and practicable methods for preserving the biodiversity of pollinators,” Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter summarizes the results. Small arable fields  and organically managed crops in particular have a positive impact. Adapted landscape management helps to increase the abundance of flowers and the number of nesting sites in protected, high-quality habitats such as calcareous grasslands. This supports the conservation of various wild pollinator groups, including endangered species.

However, this alone is not enough: “Further efforts are needed to slow down the extinction of species in such habitats and to ensure the diversity of pollinators in human-altered landscapes in the long term,” write the authors of the study. Expanding the area of such high-quality habitats and improving their connectivity are two promising and urgently needed measures.

The research team discovered this specimen of a “european wool carder bee” (Anthidium manicatum) on a calcareous grassland.

Credit

Hanno Korten / University of Wuerzburg

  

The safflower skipper (Pyrgus carthami) is very rare and highly endangered in Bavaria.

Credit

Benjamin Tanner / University of Wuerzburg

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Journal

Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences

DOI

10.1098/rspb.2024.2686 

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

Landscape management can foster pollinator richness in fragmented high-value habitats

Article Publication Date

5-Feb-2025

Calcareous

Calcareous is an adjective meaning "mostly or partly composed of calcium carbonate", in other words, containing lime or being chalky. The term is used in a wide variety of scientific disciplines.Wikipedia

 

Using sugars from peas speeds up sour beer brewing

American Chemical Society

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Sour beers have become a fixture on microbrewery menus and store shelves. They’re enjoyed for their tart, complex flavors, but some can require long and complicated brewing processes. Researchers reporting in ACS’ Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry brewed new sours in less time using a seemingly strange ingredient: field peas. The experimental beers had fruity — not “beany” — flavors and other attributes comparable to a commercial Belgian-style sour, but with shorter, simpler brewing steps.

“Sour beer is the beer enthusiast’s alternative to Champagne. By using sugars derived from peas that yeast cannot metabolize, we promote the growth of bacteria essential for producing sour beer,” says Bjørge Westereng, one of the study’s authors.

The characteristic mouth-puckering taste of a sour beer comes from acids made by lactic acid-producing bacteria (LAB) or Brettanomyces yeast, which are added by brewers or introduced naturally from the environment. However, these microbes often require months or even years to ferment the original sugary, steeped-grain liquid (wort) into a desirable drink. So, Westereng, Philipp Garbers, Catrin Tyl and colleagues have been searching for sugars beyond those found in traditional grain for the LAB to nosh on that might speed up the fermentation process.

Previously, they tried molecules derived from wood. But this time, they turned to a group of plants called pulses, which includes beans, lentils and peas. Pulses have historically been underutilized largely because of their tendency to impart beany flavors to foods. But they’re considered sustainable and easy to grow, and contain sugars called raffinose-family oligosaccharides (RFOs), which LAB can easily use as a food source. In the new research, the team brewed sour beers with RFOs extracted from field peas and compared the final product to a commercially available Belgian sour.

Using three different LAB, the researchers brewed four experimental sour beers: two with the field pea RFOs and two without. All four were fermented for 19 days with Brettanomyces clausennii yeast together with combinations of LAB. After chemical analysis and evaluation by a trained sensory panel, the team discovered that the beers brewed using the RFO extract had:

• More lactic acid, ethanol and fruity flavor-imparting compounds than the beers brewed without RFOs.
• Fruitier flavors, more acidic tastes and higher total taste intensity than the beers made without RFOs, but total taste intensity comparable to the commercial beer.
• No trace of unwanted beany flavors.

Despite the short fermentation time, the LAB gobbled up all the RFOs, leaving no detectable traces in any of the experimental beers. This is important because RFOs can cause gastrointestinal problems for some people. The researchers hope that this work shows how pulses and RFOs could be incorporated into beer brewing and that pea-based ingredients can be associated with products that taste good.

The authors acknowledge funding from the Research Council of Norway, the infrastructure grants “Norwegian Biorefinery Laboratory” and “Food Pilot Plant Norway,” the Green Technology for Plant-Based Food project, and the Norwegian Fund for Research Fees for Agricultural Products.

The paper’s abstract will be available on Feb. 5 at 8 a.m. Eastern time here: http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/acs.jafc.4c06748   

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