Jaw-Dropping Footage from the First Spacecraft to Touch the Sun

 DEC 18, 2021

 

NASA announced this week that its Parker Solar Probe was the first spacecraft to ever “touch the Sun” by flying through its corona, or upper atmosphere. The probe captured the first photos ever from within the corona, and those images were then turned into this incredible 13-second timelapse video.

The footage shows what the Parker Solar Probe saw as it passed through the Sun’s corona back in August 2021, flying through structures known as coronal streamers.

“These structures can be seen as bright features moving upward and downward in this video compiled from the spacecraft’s WISPR (Wide-field Imager for Parker Solar Probe) instrument,” the JHU Applied Physics Laboratory writes. “Such a view is only possible because the spacecraft flew above and below the streamers inside the corona. Until now, streamers have only been seen from afar.”

These are the same streamers that can be captured from Earth in photos of total solar eclipses.

“Flying so close to the Sun, Parker Solar Probe now senses conditions in the magnetically dominated layer of the solar atmosphere – the corona – that we never could before,” says Parker project scientist Nour Raouafi. “We see evidence of being in the corona in magnetic field data, solar wind data, and visually in images. We can actually see the spacecraft flying through coronal structures that can be observed during a total solar eclipse.”

The Milky Way can be seen rotating across the frame in the timelapse, but what’s even more incredible is that multiple planets in the Solar System were also captured in the images. There are even views of Earth as seen from within the Sun’s atmosphere.

Here are the features and planets labeled in still frames by astrophysicist Grant Tremblay of the Center for Astrophysics, a collaboration between Harvard and the Smithsonian Institution:

The Parker Solar Probe will continue to make closer and closer approaches to the Sun’s surface over the coming years, and it is likely to enter the Sun’s corona again as early as next month.

“I’m excited to see what Parker Solar Probe finds as it repeatedly passes through the corona in the years to come,” says NASA Heliophysics Division Director Nicky Fox. “The opportunity for new discoveries is boundless.”

Gerry Anderson Primer: Doppelganger/Journey to the Far Side of the Sun

Fastest Spacecraft Ever Made Did (and Didn’t) Touch the Sun, Here’s Why It’s Complicated

 Last week, media went ablaze with news of a human-made spaceship touching the Sun. Some (not few) were quick to jump to the conclusion that somehow a piece of hardware landed on the surface of the Sun (guess what, there is no surface), somewhat confused by NASA's choice of a title when it made the announcement: "Parker Solar Probe Touches the Sun."

18 Dec 2021, 12:42 UTC · 

by Daniel Patrascu 

As some of you might already know, the Parker Solar Probe launched in August 2018 with the stated goal of approaching the Sun like no other human-made machine ever did, in the hopes we Earthlings will get a better understanding of the star that makes life here possible, but that also threatens us with the space weather events it is responsible for.

The machine, sturdily-made to survive the incredible heat emanating from the star, will eventually get within 3.8 million miles (6.1 million km) from the Sun, reaching speeds of 430,000 miles per hour (692,000 kph), and earning it the title of fastest spacecraft ever made on Earth.

Back in November, Parker was moving at 364,660 miles per hour (586,864 kph), while it was at a distance of 5.3 million miles (8.5 million km) from its target. As it moved closer since then, it prompted NASA into proclaiming it finally touched the Sun.

But what does that mean? Like probably all stars out there, the Sun has no solid surface one can land on, assuming one could survive that. Instead, the flaming ball of gases is comprised of seven layers.

Deep down we have the core, the hottest, densest, and most hellish place in the solar system. Then come the radiative and convection zones at 86,000 miles (138,000 km) from the core, then the photosphere (which is considered the solar surface), the chromosphere, and the transition region.

Last, but not least, comes the corona, the outermost layer of the Sun which starts at about 1,300 miles (2,100 km) above the photosphere. Temperatures there are of at least 900,000 degrees Fahrenheit (500,000 degrees Celsius), the place is invisible with the naked eye and, most importantly, it does not have an upper limit.

And it is this very hard-to-define region that the Parker Solar Probe actually traveled through, at a distance of great many miles from the so-called surface, the photosphere, so those arguing it didn't actually touch the Sun do have a point. For comparison, it’s like a spacecraft passing through the tail of a comet and saying it reached it, or skimming through the upper atmosphere of a planet and claiming the same.

So, in a sense, the Parker Solar Probe did not touch the Sun, it only grazed its fancy clothing.

But, in another sense, it did touch it. You see, the corona has something called the Alfvén critical surface. It is the place that “marks the end of the solar atmosphere and beginning of the solar wind,” and even if it is as elusive as everything else about the Sun, it is generally agreed it comes at anywhere between 4.3 and 8.6 million miles (6.9 to 13.8 million km) from the star.

That, by all accounts, presently puts the Parker past the Alfvén, and right into the Sun’s atmosphere, something that was never done before. And NASA even has proof of that, in the form of the detected magnetic and particle conditions specific to the corona past that point.

Controversy aside, the fact this probe is where it is, and in working order, should benefit us all greatly. Already the machine “sampled particles and magnetic fields there,” and that should “help scientists uncover critical information about our closest star and its influence on the solar system.”

It also proved the Alfvén critical surface isn’t a smooth ball, but an area with spikes and valleys that may influence solar wind and how it eventually impacts us. And, the cherry on the cake, it even moved through something called a pseudostreamer, a loop-like structure we can see from Earth during solar eclipses.

More flybys in this region of space are planned for the future (the next one in January 2022), and they should unlock even more mysteries for us to dissect and marvel at. Untll that time, the first video below shows a stunning recording of the probe’s journey through the corona, as seen from on board Parker.

The second video explains all of the above in easy-to-understand images.

PARKER SOLAR PROBE NASA SPACECRAFT WEEKEND SUN

Understanding the Big Bang and the Cosmological Lithium Problem

By CHINESE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DECEMBER 18, 2021

Figure 1. Artist’s representation of the evolution of the universe, with time flowing to the right in the direction of the red arrow. The ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He reaction takes place in the process of primordial nucleosynthesis at the very beginning. Credit: Modified version of NASA’s image by HOU Suqing

Recently, an international research team successfully updated the ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He reaction rate based on the latest experimental data, which removes the significant ambiguity in the cosmological lithium (Li) problem from the perspective of nuclear physics.

The Big Bang is currently regarded as the most successful model to describe the origination and evolution of the universe. However, its success has been limited by the so-called lithium problem, which refers to the fact that primordial lithium-7 abundance is overpredicted by a factor of three in comparison to the value from observation, while predictions match the observed primordial deuterium and helium abundances.

From the perspective of nuclear physics, the accurate reaction rates of lithium destruction reactions are very crucial for accurate prediction of the primordial lithium-7 abundance and further understanding of the lithium problem. Nevertheless, as an important lithium-7 destruction reaction, the ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He reaction has not been well studied before 2018.

A new study published in The Astrophysical Journal updated the ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He reaction rate based on the recent experimental measurements on the three near-threshold beryllium-9 excited states. This work was conducted by an international research team, which was led by HOU Suqing at the Institute of Modern Physics (IMP), Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS).

Figure 2. Total reaction rate of ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He as a function of temperature in units of giga Kelvin where the green shaded band is its associated uncertainties. For comparison, researchers also plot the previous results from CF88 and BM93. Credit: Image by HOU Suqing

Researchers found that the new ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He rate is overall smaller than the previous estimation by about a factor of 60 at the typical temperature of the onset of primordial nucleosynthesis.

In addition, researchers presented uncertainties of the ⁷Li(d,n)2⁴He reaction rate that are directly constrained by experiments for the first time.

According to the study, the new results remove the significant ambiguity in the calculated lithium-7 abundance due to this reaction, which will be useful to understand the primordial lithium problem and probe exotic physics beyond the standard model.

Reference: “New Thermonuclear Rate of 7Li(d,n)24He Relevant to the Cosmological Lithium Problem” by S. Q. Hou, T. Kajino, T. C. L. Trueman, M. Pignatari, Y. D. Luo and C. A. Bertulani, 25 October 2021, The Astrophysical Journal.
DOI: 10.3847/1538-4357/ac1a11

This work was supported by the Strategic Priority Research Program of CAS, the Youth Innovation Promotion Association of CAS and the National Natural Science Foundation of China.

Other institutions involved in the study include University of Tokyo (Japan), National Astronomical Observatory of Japan (Japan), Beihang University (China), the University of Hull (UK), Hungarian Academy of Sciences (Hungary), Michigan State University (US), and Texas A&M University- Commerce (US).

The Climate System Relies On Microscopic Particles
By Addrew Shawn 

On Dec 18, 2021
Credit: CC0 Public Domain

The Earth’s climate is an extremely complex system that is driven by the subtle balance of many different processes—a key one of which is the air-sea exchange of CO2. Monitoring the ocean’s uptake of CO2 is key to our understanding of climate change, and scientists at EPFL and at the Mediterranean Institute of Oceanography (MIO, France) have recently discovered a new part of the process. They identified a new source of organic phosphorus delivered from the atmosphere which potentially will help phytoplankton and microalgae growth, the latter of which play a crucial role in making our planet habitable. Organic phosphorus deposition to marine environments has not been studied till now, but this groundbreaking work showed it is an important—and completely overlooked—source of the critical nutrient, with important implications for climate. The scientists’ findings were recently published in the journal npj Climate and Atmospheric Science.

Phytoplankton, which live on the surface layers of lakes, seas and oceans, need a variety of chemical elements to grow, the main ones being iron, nitrogen and phosphorus. An abundance of these nutrients allow phytoplankton to bloom and carry out the critical function of photosynthesis, during which large amounts of CO2 is absorbed from the air and converted to biomass, while also releasing oxygen. That makes them highly important to living organisms and gives them a crucial role in regulating the Earth’s climate. Phytoplankton also form the base of the aquatic food chain, which sustains marine systems.

The supply and bioavailability of phosphorus affects the growth rate of phytoplankton, the rate at which they photosynthesize, hence the amount of CO2 they absorb. It is therefore important to identify all the ways in which marine ecosystems are fertilized; this can provide key insights into the climate system and how human activities affect it.

The full picture

“Scientists already knew that large amounts of inorganic phosphorus are transported to marine ecosystems by airborne dust in the form of phosphate minerals and ions. But this is an incomplete picture,” explains Kalliopi Violaki, the study’s lead author and a scientist at the Laboratory of atmospheric processes and their impacts (LAPI),which is part of EPFL’s School of Architecture, Civil and Environmental Engineering (ENAC).

Kalliopi Violaki organized and ran a two year-long research program at the MIO. During that time, she discovered that bioaerosols—airborne biological particles, such as viruses, bacteria, fungi, plant fibers and pollen—contain significant amounts of organic phosphorus. Although its exact amount is still uncertain, we know it is significant because it is comparable to the amount of inorganic phosphorus that dust aerosols supply. In addition, organic phosphorus is often found in the form of phospholipids, a key component of cell membranes.

“Being aware that terrestrial ecosystems can fertilize marine ecosystems via bioaerosols gives us a completely new perspective,” says Athanasios Nenes, head of LAPI and co-author of the study. “This knowledge will help us better understand the processes that influence the carbon cycle and the climate.”

A major discovery

Organic phosphorus has not yet been incorporated into climate models, but doing so could prove to be a major improvement to understand how marine ecosystems respond to the ongoing climate crisis. Ocean layers differ from one to another in terms of density, temperature, oxygen level and salinity, and climate change is inducing further changes. This makes mixing between the layers more difficult and disrupts CO2 absorption. As the ocean becomes more stratified, it also becomes harder for nutrients available in the deep sea to reach the various layers. This could adversely impact marine habitats and the food supply for many marine species, particularly in remote areas that have limited phosphorus supplies. The new source of phosphorous may completely change how the Mediterranean (and other) seas are predicted to respond to a changing climate.

This study shows how important are the atmospheric particles to the environment. Despite being microscopic in size, variations in their supply could cause major changes to the whole climate system. The scientists will therefore conduct further research in order to better understand this new source of organic phosphorus and how it might influence the Earth’s climate.

Cosmic dust may be key source of phosphorus for life on Earth

More information:

Kalliopi Violaki et al, Bioaerosols and dust are the dominant sources of organic P in atmospheric particles, npj Climate and Atmospheric Science (2021). DOI: 10.1038/s41612-021-00215-5

Provided by
Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne

Citation:
The climate system relies on microscopic particles (2021, December 17)
retrieved 17 December 2021
from https://phys.org/news/2021-12-climate-microscopic-particles.html

Ask a Caltech Expert: Professor Duo Discuss Connections Between Microbes and Climate 

CALTECH

Published on Saturday, December 18, 2021 

As part of Conversations on Sustainability, a webinar series hosted by the Caltech Science Exchange, Dianne Newman, Gordon M. Binder/Amgen Professor of Biology and Geobiology and Ecology and Biosphere Engineering Initiative Lead for the Resnick Sustainability Institute; and Victoria Orphan, James Irvine Professor of Environmental Science and Geobiology and Allen V. C. Davis and Lenabelle Davis Leadership Chair of the Center for Environmental Microbial Interactions; discussed their research into the connections between microorganisms and climate change.

Orphan and Newman explain how microbes have shaped Earth to allow for complex life such as plants and animals, how microorganisms are adapting to the warming planet, and how humans might be able to use these organisms to help address climate change.

Here, they talk with Caltech science writer Lori Dajose (BS ’15).

The questions and answers below have been edited for clarity and length.

How have microbes influenced the evolution of life on Earth, and how have they influenced the planet?

Orphan: Microbes represent the earliest forms of life on our planet, emerging some 3.8 billion years ago. Over these billions of years, they‘ve shaped the chemical and physical environment in which we live, and they’ve paved the way for the evolution of multicellular life, like plants and animals.

These microbes are the champions of ecosystem engineering. One poignant example I can give you is the invention of oxygen photosynthesis. The ability to use sunlight to split water is important not only in the production of oxygen, which we all depend upon, but also because microbes are able to fix carbon dioxide [i.e., convert CO2 from the air into organic material]. In turn, this changed the total amount of biomass that could be sustained on Earth. All these processes, as well as the nutrients that these organisms are collectively cycling through their microscale ecosystems, are truly influencing our planet. They’re really our lifeline in creating an environment that is habitable for us.

Can each of you tell me a little bit more about your research focus? What kind of microbes do you study, and why?

Newman: Many in the audience might be familiar with thinking about the microbiome with respect to human health. Microbes play an equally important role in planetary health, and they’ve been doing this for billions of years, like Victoria said. There are so many aspects of this, but the part that intrigues me are the strategies that microbes use to conserve energy. I love this as a general topic because it reaches into every facet of life on the planet, not only human life but also the life of plants and other organisms.

What I try to do in my research is pick bacteria to study that have metabolisms that are very fundamental, that are as relevant in the context of soil as they are in chronic infection.

I always am reminding myself and my students of the fact that at the microbial scale, the microbe only knows what’s in its immediate surroundings. It’s possible to utilize methods of modern genetics to pick organisms that are important environmental organisms but nevertheless ones that we can bring into the laboratory, cultivate, and come to learn how they catalyze these remarkable processes that change their environment in profound ways. Our goal is to understand how they do that so that we can predict, in diverse contexts, what they will be doing and ultimately gain the ability to manipulate and control them toward good ends.

Orphan: My main interest is in microorganisms that live in ocean ecosystems. The oceans represent 71 percent of our planet’s surface, and the microbes that live in that environment are critical for controlling Earth’s climate and sustainability on the planet. It’s really quite shocking, given how big this ecosystem is and the impact that it has, that so little of the ocean environment has been studied by scientists—somewhere on the order of 5 percent. There are wonderful opportunities for new discoveries of microorganisms and their activities that can have profound impacts.

A lot of our research is conducted in deep-ocean environments, looking at the roles that microorganisms play in the methane cycle. Like carbon dioxide [CO2], methane is another greenhouse gas that is dynamically changing over time, and the oceans are a huge reservoir for methane. A lot of this is in the form of ice-like material rimming the continents. It’s known as methane hydrate, and very little of this methane gets released into the atmosphere because microorganisms are oxidizing this gas in sediments, basically serving as a biological filter. These organisms have been very difficult to culture in the lab, and we use combinations of molecular techniques like genomic sequencing and geochemical and isotopic analyses to study these microorganisms directly in the environment.

When most people think of microbes, they might think of the germs that make us sick. Why is it important to study microbes in the context of the broader biosphere and planet?

Newman: Yes, it’s a common misconception to think of microbes as pathogens. I think that is a vestige of the last century, when a lot of microbiology was oriented toward understanding how pathogens work. What we now know is that of the millions of microbial species on the planet, less than 100 are thought to be hardcore pathogens. That means the vast majority are doing things that are vital for the life of the planet and its habitats.

Orphan: Only recently—I think in large part due to the recognition that the human microbiome is important for human health—has the public has gained a greater interest in microorganisms and recognized that they are more than just pathogens to be feared. The fact that they are hard to see, yet they’re so pervasive and have such a profound impact, is one of the biggest challenges for us in terms of communicating to the general public that everybody should be paying attention to the microbial world. Our ability to understand biology in general, I think, is integrated with our understanding of microorganisms, simply because we’ve evolved in a microbial world. They were here on the scene billions of years before us.

Newman: Plants and animals did not evolve in a sea of Purell, right? We were surrounded by the microbial world from the get-go.

We now are seeing the effects of anthropogenic climate change—for example, sea-level rise, hotter and dryer conditions in some places, and ocean acidification. How have microbes been affected? Is there a danger that certain microbes will become extinct?

Orphan: I talked about my research in the deep sea. More recently, we have been working on coastal vegetated ecosystems, which include marine plants like seagrass that are huge sequesters of carbon and are also thought to buffer against some of the effects of ocean acidification. There is a lot of research to be done studying the fate of carbon within these ecosystems. Microbes play a central role in how much carbon is buried and how the health of these ecosystems is sustained. Understanding this is important with increasing impacts of climate change and rising CO2 in the atmosphere.

Newman: Another example is that we now appreciate that there’s a large amount of carbon stored in soil, but we don’t understand very well the mechanisms that enable it. We know that it involves a complex interrelationship between certain types of microbes such as fungi, which are associated intimately with nearly all plants on Earth. These fungi help provide plants with nutrients and water that allow them to thrive. But within the soil, there are many other kinds of microbes in addition to the fungi that form a community that makes the entire ecosystem whole. And so, one of the main interests for microbial ecologists is gaining a predictive understanding of how these ecological systems will evolve in different parts of the world. In the northern latitudes, a lot of carbon is stored in the frozen tundra, but as the planet is warming, the carbon stored in that soil will not necessarily stay there. But we are unable to predict what will happen because we lack a quantitative understanding of which organisms are present in this habitat, what they’re doing, and how they’re going to respond.

I once heard somebody say, “Microbes were the first in and are going to be the last out,” in terms of the life on this planet. I think that’s very profound and important for us to realize because microbes are always adapting at a pace that’s extraordinary. That’s something that potentially, if we understand it, can be leveraged for the human population.

What are some concrete ways that microbes can help us address sustainability and climate change?

Newman: There are so many examples. I’ll stick with my agricultural theme to give one: The over-utilization of fertilizer. Of course, crops need nutrients to grow, and we want crops to feed the global population. But what we don’t want is to waste nutrients like nitrogen or phosphorus because we run the risk of depleting natural reserves but also because we continue to generate nitrogen in fertilizer through industrial processes that themselves are environmentally harmful. So, there’s an incentive to think about how we might harness the microbial world’s natural ability to help crops gain these nutrients. It’s been known for many decades, for instance, that certain types of microbes have symbioses with certain types of crops. Soybeans are a good example: Bacteria in the soil can naturally take nitrogen from the atmosphere and convert it into a form that the soybean plant can use. If we understood how to effect that ability more broadly across a lot of different crops, that would be a game changer. That would give us an opportunity to have a much more sustainable source of nitrogen for crops.

Orphan: The same sort of thing applies in harnessing microbial activities in the ocean. Carbon sequestration is a big question, and people are working hard to try to figure out how to utilize microorganisms. I mentioned previously these vegetated coastal ecosystems where seagrass communities are huge storages of carbon. The plant basically fixes carbon dioxide through oxygenic photosynthesis, and a lot of that carbon ends up buried in the soil. We don’t fully understand the mechanisms that are driving that. A lot of it is done by microorganisms that don’t breathe oxygen but use a whole host of different chemicals to oxidize carbon. If we can understand the secrets to the success of how that carbon gets locked in, this is another opportunity for us to enhance further carbon burial in these coastal environments.

Here are some of the other questions addressed in the video linked above:

• Is there any evidence that microbes are mutating to thrive in higher CO2 concentrations?
• Is there research into genetically modified microbes for end goals like promoting photosynthesis or creating alternative foods?
• How far are we from knowing enough to be able to treat disturbed soils in specific land ecosystems to reestablish the right soil microbes and therefore optimize sequestering carbon with plant growth?
• How close are we to utilizing the metabolic processes you’re researching to do things like metabolize greenhouse gases, clean up oil spills, etc.?