What we've learned from COVID-19 outbreaks

 in meat-processing plants

by Shelley Marshall, The Conversation

Credit: Shutterstock

From the United States to Brazil, Britain, Germany and Australia, meat-processing plants have played a peculiar role in spreading COVID-19.

In Brazil, union officials allege one-fifth of the industry's employees—about 100,000 meat plant workers—have been infected. In the US, meat-processing facilities have been linked to more than 38,500 cases and at least 180 deaths. Meat works made up almost half of US COVID-19 hotspots in May. They were also the major initial source of infections in Australia's June "second wave" outbreak in the state of Victoria.

One reason for these transmissions is that meat processing takes place in confined refrigerated spaces. But the fact the industry has not been linked with large viral outbreaks in all countries and regions suggests other, controllable factors have also been instrumental.

The fundamental lesson from these outbreaks is that unhealthy working conditions and precarious work need to be addressed to stop the meat industry acting as an incubator of COVID-19.

Unhealthy work conditions

Past studies have shown influenza and other coronaviruses (SARS and MERS) are more stable and therefore spread more easily in lower temperatures. Though lower temperatures have not yet been conclusively proven to increase COVID-19 transmissions, Australian researchers have identified an association with lower humidity.

This alone increases the risk to meat-processing workers, who perform strenuous manual labor on a production line in relatively close proximity to others. But that risk is compounded by other factors—particularly poor air quality contributing to respiratory illness, which makes any COVID-19 infection more severe.


As noted by the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration, among the "many serious safety and health hazards" long associated with meat-processing work are "biological hazards associated with handling live animals or exposures to feces and blood which can increase their risk for many diseases".

A 2017 study found respiratory disorders such as coughing, breathlessness and wheezing three to four times more prevalent among slaughterhouse workers than office workers. Among poultry workers, a 2013 study found more than 40% had asthmatic symptoms (compared with about 10% of all adults). This was attributed to "poultry dust", a biologically active combination of chicken residue, feathers and molds.

Insufficient ventilation makes the spread of the coronavirus 20 times more likely, according to a report published by the European Federation of Food, Agriculture and Tourism Trade Unions in June.

That report lists other factors too, such as inadequate social distancing and a dearth of appropriate personal protective equipment. But ultimately, poor air-quality is symptomatic of the lack of a healthy and safe workplace for many meat-processing workers.

It is also pertinent to the rest of us. The American Society for Heating, Refrigeration, and Air‐Conditioning Engineers, for example, has recommended ventilation air intake in all buildings should now be three air changes an hour. That's three to five times higher than the minimum standard for offices.

What this all comes down to is a critical need to improve health and safety standards in abattoirs and meat processing facilities across the board.

Credit: Shutterstock

Increase job security and sick leave entitlements

The other main lesson to be drawn from the meat-processing industry is the risk posed by "precarious work", where workers lack the rights and protections of being an employee.

It is no coincidence, as the European Federation Union report argues, that the vast majority of meat workers testing positive in Europe have been migrant workers, hired through subcontractors, with few employment rights and often living in overcrowded accommodation.

An estimated 80% of meat workers in the Netherlands, for example, are from central and eastern Europe, employed through temporary agencies.

Workers are typically employed as casuals, or "daily hires" (meaning their jobs technically terminate at the end of every shift) or through subcontracting arrangements that deem them "self-employed". As the report notes: "Employment conditions for many meat workers are extremely precarious. Moreover, the level of sick pay allowances can be very low. This may have determined the fact that in case of experiencing COVID-19 symptoms some workers have not reported the status of their health conditions for fear of losing their job or for not being able to afford a decent living with sick pay allowances."

These things can be fixed

Evidence from a number of countries shows these things can be fixed.

Denmark is the poster-child for the automation of meat processing and decent pay, allowing for social distancing within factories and thus low COVID-19 outbreaks.

In Spain, a collective agreement that guarantees subcontracted workers the same conditions as other employees has been credited with controlling COVID-19 transmissions.

In Germany, transmissions linked to meat processing slowed after abattoirs were banned from hiring temporary workers in May.

In Victoria, Australia, ensuring all workers have access to paid pandemic leave (along with other measures including the government mandating strict physical distancing and safety protocols in plants) appears to have proven successful.

But many of these responses are only temporary emergency responses. The global pandemic has brought global attention to the longer-term need for systemic reform to eliminate the dangers of unhealthy workplaces and disempowered workers, and ensure that workers can afford to stay home when they are sick.

In a sense we are all complicit in a system that has seen working conditions worsen over the last decade. We've accepted the rise of complex subcontracting and fake "phoenix" companies designed to strip workers of employee status, and supermarket and fast-food chains pushing cost pressures down supply chains, simply because we like cheap meat.

There are moves in Europe to address this lack of accountability through extending legal liability throughout the whole subcontracting chain. Other countries would do well to learn from these examples.

One way or the other, our love of cheap prices shouldn't see workers getting treated like meat.


Explore further

COVID-19 outbreaks at meat processing plants are hitting minorities hard

Provided by The Conversation

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

How worried should I be about news the coronavirus survives on surfaces for up to 28 days?

by Lara Herrero and Eugene Madzokere, The Conversation

Credit: Shutterstock

During a typical day, we touch the surfaces of many different objects, often without noticing: money, phones, door handles, elevator buttons, cups, desks, keyboards, petrol pumps and shopping trolleys.


Objects with surfaces that carry pathogens (such as bacteria or viruses) can pass on infections when we touch them. So it makes sense contact with these contaminated surfaces (often called "fomites") might increase our infection risk.

Now a study published by CSIRO researchers suggests SARS-CoV-2, the virus that causes COVID-19, can survive up to 28 days on common surfaces.

So, is this cause for panic? The answer is, not necessarily.

What did the study find?

The researchers applied SARS-CoV-2 to Australian plastic banknotes, paper banknotes, stainless steel, glass, vinyl and cotton cloth.

They exposed the objects to three different temperatures—20 degrees C, 30 degrees C and 40 degrees C—all in the dark and with 50% humidity. They then measured the amount of surviving live virus over time.

At 20 degrees C, the virus survived longer (up to 28 days) on smooth surfaces, such as glass and banknotes (both plastic and paper), than on porous surfaces such as cotton.

At 30 degrees C, the virus was not detected beyond day seven on any surface except paper banknotes, where it survived up to day 21.

At 40 degrees C, the virus was rapidly inactivated, meaning it couldn't cause infection.

What does this mean for our daily routine?

The study was designed to mimic the spread of the virus indoors on surfaces under dark conditions only. In Australia, 28 days of darkness would not be considered normal.

However, this is the first study to show long-term survival (28 days) of the virus on non-porous surfaces such as glass, steel and banknotes.

Previous studies indicated the virus survives for much shorter periods. This is from a few hours to less than seven days, inside, at temperatures under 25 degrees C, and in lit environments with varying humidity.


Although the CSIRO findings are scientifically significant, their relevance to the everyday transmission of the virus remains uncertain.

Where does this leave us?

Many of the object surfaces we touch certainly deserve consideration as sources of SARS-CoV-2 transmission. However, how long the virus survives on them depends on several environmental and other factors, not all of which researchers have sufficiently studied.

Light

Could exposing the object surfaces to light have affected the results? At this stage, we just don't know.

Other researchers have looked at the ability of a form of ultraviolet light (known as UVC) to inactivate the virus.

However, this form is not abundant in sunlight. So we cannot simply leave objects (possible fomites) in the sun hoping to deactivate any potential viruses hitching an unwelcome ride.

This and other research means we still don't fully understand the impact of sunlight or other sources of light on the viability of the virus on common objects under everyday conditions. This could be in the home, workplaces or shopping centers, or in enclosed spaces such as in cars or on public transport.

Most of the research so far on using light to inactivate the virus has focused on hospitals or other controlled settings, and using artificial light.

Humidity

Humidity is also likely to play a role in the survival of SARS-CoV-2, but there is no certainty on what the role is.

Most studies analyzing humidity have been observational, meaning researchers are observing the spread of virus in a population under certain weather conditions.

So far observations are that increasing humidity may be worse for virus survival.

This has also been demonstrated in a laboratory, with increasing humidity decreasing the virus' survival on fomites. However we're not certain whether this is relevant to everyday life.

Type of secretion

We know the virus is mainly transmitted through the air, by inhaling respiratory secretions containing the virus.

While there is ongoing debate about whether the virus is spread via droplets or is airborne, this is merely a debate on how small a particle can be while still successfully transferring the virus and causing infection.

Research to conclusively prove SARS-CoV-2 can be transmitted via micro particles (5 micrometers or less, the definition of airborne transmission) is still ongoing.

For now, if a SARS-CoV-2 infected person coughs, sneezes or wipes respiratory secretions onto an object, this object may become a fomite.

In a nutshell

The CSIRO study furthers our understanding of SARS-CoV-2. However, it does not suggest fomites are a significantly greater source of infection than what we are currently managing with existing COVID-19 hygiene practices.

We need to continue frequently washing and sanitizing our hands and surfaces, wearing personal protective equipment such as masks if in high-risk situations or when mandated, and physically distancing.


Explore furtherNew research on SARS-CoV-2 virus 'survivability'
Provided by The Conversation

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

A consensus document on the state of the science of combating misinformation

by University of Bristol

Credit: CC0 Public Domain

With the current flood of misinformation and "fake news" undermining democracies around the world, a consensus document that summarizes the science of debunking has been published by a team of 22 prominent researchers of misinformation and its debunking.


Well-informed political deliberation cannot occur when citizens and politicians are entangled in the dissemination of misinformation. Misinformation has particularly insidious psychological consequences because it often 'sticks' in people's memories even after it has been debunked, and even when people believe and acknowledge a correction.

The Debunking Handbook 2020 has been made freely available to the public, policy makers, journalists, and other practitioners and is a consensus document that reflects experts' understanding of the science of debunking.

Professor Stephan Lewandowsky, Chair in Cognitive Science in the School of Psychological Science at the University of Bristol and lead author, explained: "Society is drenched in misinformation, which can range from inadvertent inaccurate reporting to deliberate dissemination of outlandish conspiracy theories for political ends.

"Social media has created a world in which traditional gate-keepers are largely absent, which allows misinformation to spread farther and faster online than ever before, and it is becoming increasingly difficult for the public to sift information that is accurate from false or misleading information.


"This handbook helps explain how best to combat misinformation, namely through intensive debunking or inoculating people against misleading information before it is encountered.

"The handbook is a consensus document that was created by an innovative process that involved a series of predefined steps, all of which were followed and documented and are publicly available. The authors were invited based on their scientific status in the field, and they all agreed on all points made in the handbook. We therefore believe that this is a consensus document that reflects the scientific consensus about how to combat misinformation."


Explore further

Why COVID-19 misinformation spread faster than pandemic in early March
More information: Lewandowsky, S., et al. The Debunking Handbook 2020.

DOI: 10.17910/b7.1182 www.climatechangecommunication … nking-handbook-2020/
Provided by University of Bristol

Fake COVID-19 news makes you want to treat yourself on the cheap

by Andrew Sorensen, University of Colorado at Boulder
Credit: CC0 Public Domain

People exposed to fake news during the already uncertain COVID-19 era are simultaneously compelled to treat themselves and to try to save money, according to new research from CU Boulder and the University of New Hampshire.


The findings are published in an upcoming edition of the Journal of the Association for Consumer Research.

Participants exposed to fake news said they felt more uncertainty about their lives. The researchers found this effect was compounded by the pandemic. It even occurred when researchers reminded participants that fake news exists.

The researchers then asked participants a series of questions about making hypothetical choices between premium or cost-effective food and grocery products.

"The finding that surprised us is that this uncertainty can cause people to feel a joint desire to save their money for a murky future and also to spend a little bit to make themselves feel better about the state of the world right now," said Nick Light, a marketing Ph.D. candidate at CU Boulder's Leeds School of Business and co-author on the paper.

Essentially, people who have splurged for little treats over the course of the pandemic should take solace that they are not alone, according to the researchers.

"COVID-19 did not occur in a vacuum. The pandemic came in on the heels of this other societal issue of misinformation that the world is still figuring out," said Justin Pomerance, an assistant professor of marketing at the University of New Hampshire and study co-author.

Fake news' sway over consumers' spending habits under COVID-19 did not depend on political party and occurred whenever participants felt they had been exposed to misinformation, whether or not it was actually misinformation.

"Regardless of what we feel about it, or if we can identify it, the presence of fake news changes the information environment," said Lawrence Williams, co-author and associate professor of marketing at the Leeds School of Business. "It's having an effect on the world and the way that all of us are exposed to information."

The uncertainty fake news created did play out somewhat differently for people of different income levels. While higher-income earners wanted to balance out treat purchases with value buys, people making less money leaned towards purchasing one or the other.

Higher-income earners may weather the COVID-19 economic downturn with fewer issues, but Williams said there could be a way for lower-income earners to avoid feeling pressure to spend money on non-essentials.

"They could limit time on social media or engaging with other possible sources of misinformation," Williams said.

While the research yields insights into how fake news is impacting people's psyches during the pandemic, the work actually began in 2019.

"We started this research looking at marketing questions around products implicated in fake news stories," Williams said. "We saw a clear need to pivot in March as global response to the pandemic became influenced by misinformation."

The paper still holds long-lasting lessons for the business community, according to the researchers.

"Companies can do well during uncertain times by convincing consumers that what they offer is more of a treat," said Light. "They could also argue their product is a more responsible purchase compared to some other purchase the customer might be considering."

Beyond selling products, the researchers advised companies to pay extra attention to the relationships they have with customers.

"Use your platform to be more authentic. Be especially honest and a champion for the truth," said Williams.

He said that approach could help people reduce customers' feelings of uncertainty, or even anxiety and depression.

Companies can take a major step by simply making themselves aware of the misinformation problem and the uncertainty it creates, the researchers said.

Policymakers should also take note of the group's findings on fake news' impact on uncertainty, Pomerance said.

"Taking action to limit fake news could tamp down the uncertainty that leads to overspending or antisocial behaviors like hoarding," said Pomerance.


Explore further

Warnings about COVID-19 misinformation are being ignored, new study suggests
More information: Justin Pomerance et al. In these uncertain times: Fake news amplifies the desires to save and spend in response to COVID-19, Journal of the Association for Consumer Research (2020). DOI: 10.1086/711836
Provided by University of Colorado at Boulder

COVID impacts demand a change of plan: Funding a shift from commuting to living locally

by Benjamin Kaufman, The Conversation

Conventional transport infrastructure planning has been based on wholesale commuting to and from the city centre. Credit: Taras Vyshnya/Shutterstock

Long-term planning has delivered mass transit systems to cater for high-patronage, hub-and-spoke transport systems. Unfortunately, this has left many city residents without basic access to public transport services. And we could never have planned for the impacts of COVID-19.


Our previous plans were based on the best available data at the time. Today, these plans must be critically reviewed using new data that properly represent the world and our transport needs as they are now.

Important facts to keep in mind

1: Fewer people commute to work.

The work-from-home transition is well under way. Our current transport networks (except for roads, which have rebounded to traffic equal to or above pre-pandemic levels in some cities) are operating far below previous levels, even allowing for social distancing. This may not be the best time to break ground on major infrastructure projects planned under previous assumptions of population and demand growth.

2: Disadvantaged populations lack access to opportunities.

Public transport is key to enabling everyone in a population to be a productive member of society. Many disadvantaged groups cannot drive or afford car ownership. However, they also lack access to public transport, particularly in the outer suburbs.

Unfortunately, coronavirus impacts will hit the disadvantaged the hardest. If we want everyone to be able to participate in the economic recovery, we need to promote basic levels of access regardless of an individual's circumstance.

Estimated resident population by suburban classification, as count and proportion of city population. Credit: Infrastructure Australia: Outer Urban Public Transport: Improving accessibility in lower-density areas

3: Population growth will not meet projections.

Migration bans will greatly reduce short-term growth. Current projections show a population up to 4% smaller in 2040 than it would have been in a non-COVID world. This will further decrease demand for urban transit services as well as demand across many sectors of our society. These trends are important because much of our planning is based around these population growth metrics.

However, our suburbs still lack basic public transport services. If we want to increase patronage, we need to bring services to more people by improving coverage of our sprawling, low-density cities.


Over 80% of the population of our biggest cities live in the outer and middle suburbs, yet this massive majority have limited to no basic public transport service. Across our five largest cities, Infrastructure Australia reports, "public transport disadvantage in outer suburbs is significant."

Households' access to jobs and services gets much worse with increasing distance from the city center. Development of suburban and regional mobility-as-a-service (MaaS) offerings could promote better access in these "harder to serve" areas.

Moving the country forward

Job creation will be an important aspect of economic recovery. Yet too often we look to large construction projects as the answer. There is plenty of other job-creating work to be done in our communities.

We could, for example, increase the miserly funding for our piecemeal walking and cycling networks.

Bridj is one of the operators that is expanding on-demand services in Sydney and other cities. Credit: Bridj Transit Systems/Facebook

We could also expand on-demand services to suburban and rural residents who lack basic public transport access. On-demand transit does not follow fixed routes or timetables. Riders book a trip for a cost similar to a bus fare.

These options will encourage local spending to support small businesses. These are an important piece of our social fabric and improve livability in our communities.

We need to look locally

A focus on localized investment in the many neglected communities across the country will deliver major benefits. Money already committed to large projects that are under way represents sunk costs that may be too deep to renegotiate. However, future plans using public funds must be re-examined.

Investments should target disadvantaged groups and broaden access to transport networks, encouraging new potential users. For many, assistance in gaining access to the necessities of life will be invaluable during the coming economic recovery. Guaranteed access to groceries, medical services, work opportunities and recreational activities must not be reserved for the elite.

We need better localized public transport and we need it for the majority of citizens, not just those who live in the inner suburbs of our capital cities. Most regional populations lack even rudimentary public transport coverage at reasonable frequency.

Increasing services in these areas will create valuable jobs that will stick around, unlike large one-off construction projects. The money will stay local, going into the pockets of operators who live and work in their own community.

While our long-term planning is not to blame for our current situation, we need to develop for the future, not the past. The financial costs of building and maintaining our current infrastructure are not going away. However, we can no longer refuse to invest in many of our underserved communities.

It is time to ensure everyone, regardless of their income or where they grow up, has the basic services they need to be a productive member of society.


Explore furtherOn-demand services bring public transport to the suburbs

Provided by The Conversation

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

AI-related job growth correlates to improved social welfare through economic growth

by Burcin Ikiz, PhD, Stanford University

Cities with greater increases in AI-related job postings exhibited greater economic growth, new research shows. Credit: Stanford University

Artificial intelligence carries the promise of making industry more efficient and our lives easier. With that promise, however, also comes the fear of job replacement, hollowing out of the middle class, increased income inequality, and overall dissatisfaction. According to the quarterly CNBC/SurveyMonkey Workplace Happiness survey from October last year, 37% of workers between the ages of 18 and 24 are worried about AI eliminating their jobs.


But a recent study from two researchers affiliated with the Stanford Institute for Human-Centered Artificial Intelligence (HAI) challenged this public perception about AI's impact on social welfare. The study found a relationship between AI-related jobs and increases in economic growth, which in return improved the well-being of the society.

Demand for AI-related jobs has been growing constantly in recent years, but this growth has been widely variable between cities and industry. Arizona State University assistant professor Christos Makridis and Saurabh Mishra, HAI AI Index manager and researcher, wanted to understand the effects of AI on society independent of these variables.

For this, they examined the number of AI-related job listings by city in the U.S. using Stanford HAI's AI Index, an open source project that tracks and visualizes data on AI. They found that, between 2014 and 2018, cities with greater increases in AI-related job postings exhibited greater economic growth. This relationship was dependent on a city's ability to leverage its inherent capabilities in industry and education to create AI-based employment opportunities. This meant that only cities with certain infrastructure—such as high-tech services and more educated workers—benefited from this growth.

Next, the researchers studied how this growth translated to well-being at a macro level using data from Gallup's U.S. Daily Poll, which surveys 1,000 different people each day on five components of well-being: physical, social, career, community, and financial. The researchers studied the correlation between the number of AI jobs and the poll results, controlling for many factors, such as demographic characteristics of a population and presence of universities in a given city. They found that AI-related job growth—mediated by economic growth—was positively associated with improved state of being, especially for physical, social, and financial components.

This was a surprising finding given the public's concern over AI's potentially adverse effects on quality of life and overall happiness.

The researchers believe that their study is the first quantitative investigation of the relationship between AI and social well-being. While their findings are intriguing, they are also correlative. The study can't conclude whether AI is the cause of the observed improvement in well-being.

Nevertheless, the study makes an important and unique contribution to understanding the impact of AI on society. "The fact that we found this robust, positive association, even after we control for things like education, age, and other measures of industrial composition, I think is all very positive," Makridis says.

Their findings also offer a course of action to policymakers. The researchers suggest that city leaders introduce smart industrial policies, such as the Endless Frontier Act, to support scientific and technological innovation through increased funding and investments targeted for AI-based research and discovery. These policies—along with ones that promote higher education—can help balance the economic inequality between cities by providing them with opportunities to grow.

"Given that [cities] have an educated population set, a good internet connection, and residents with programming skills, they can drive economic growth," Mishra says. "Supporting the AI-based industry can improve the economic growth of any city, and thus the well-being of its residents."


Explore furtherCOVID impacts demand a change of plan: Funding a shift from commuting to living locally
More information: Christos Makridis et al. The Relationship Between Artificial Intelligence and Well-being: Evidence from 343 Metropolitan Areas, SSRN Electronic Journal (2020). DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3669348
Provided by Stanford University
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Jobless benefits only reached a quarter of laid off workers

by Robert O'neill, Harvard University

Credit: Harvard University

Only a quarter of workers who were laid off or furloughed at the height of the pandemic lockdown actually received timely unemployment benefit, according to a survey by Shift Project researchers at Harvard Kennedy School and University of California, San Francisco. The systemic failure caused deep privation, including hunger and housing insecurity.


The new research is based on a survey conducted in April and May of 2,500 workers who lost their jobs from 110 of the largest service sector companies in the United States—companies in the retail, food service, hospitality, grocery, pharmacy, fulfillment, or hardware sectors. The survey also found enormous variation between states, ranging from 77% of unemployed workers who applied for unemployment insurance (UI) receiving unemployment benefits in Minnesota to just 8% in Florida.

The report comes as Congress struggles to approve a new economic rescue package for the country, including the extension of unemployment benefits for affected workers.

"Recent debates over the appropriate amount of unemployment insurance benefits often assume that unemployed workers will actually receive these benefits," said Daniel Schneider, professor of public policy at Harvard Kennedy School (HKS), professor of sociology at Harvard, and co-principal investigator of the Shift Project. "Our research shows that was far from the case, and the consequences were catastrophic for working families."

"Our research shows that it doesn't have to be this way," said Kristen Harknett, associate professor at the University of California, San Francisco, and the Shift Project's co-principal investigator. "Although unemployed workers faced delays and barriers in the UI process in some states, states like Minnesota and Massachusetts got UI benefits into the hands of workers who needed them in a timely fashion. And these benefits made a huge difference in keeping workers afloat."

Prior to the pandemic, the report notes, workers already faced hurdles when applying for unemployment insurance: They needed to document their job searches meticulously, faced long response times, and were also frustrated by technical glitches on state websites. The coronavirus pandemic, and the ensuing lockdown and economic crisis, exacerbated these inefficiencies.

The report found those seeking unemployment insurance benefits faced many barriers along the way. Only 76% applied for unemployment insurance in the first place, with most of those who failed to make a claim saying they did not believe they were eligible. Another 5% of the total fell off along the application process, leaving only 71% with completed applications. Of the remaining 39% who had not been rejected or had not yet heard back regarding their claim, just 27% had actually received benefits.


"Although the share of unemployed workers receiving UI benefits may increase over time," the researchers write, "our data suggest that workers experience a sizable period of time without benefits. Even among those who had been unemployed for two months or more, only 25% had received a UI payment."

The absence of unemployment benefits brought real hardships. Researchers found that 26% of unemployed workers who had not yet received their benefits experienced hunger in the prior month. But, for unemployed workers who received UI, they were no worse-off than those who were still employed. (The researchers point out though that food insecurity remains a chronic condition even for those with service-sector jobs—13% of both employed workers and workers who received UI experienced hunger in the prior month.)

Additionally, 13% faced housing insecurity—doubling up for housing or staying in a shelter or other place not meant for housing. And nearly one in five, 18%, reported that someone in their household didn't get medical care they needed because of the cost.

There were stark differences in how the unemployed fared across the country. The unemployed fared better in Minnesota (where 77% received benefits), Massachusetts (65%) and Virginia (64%). About half of applicants in California, Missouri, North Carolina, New York, and Tennessee had received their unemployment benefits. Rates of receipt were much lower in Colorado (25%), Illinois (24%), Indiana (27%), and Ohio (24%). Florida stands alone at the bottom of the list, with just 8% of applicants having received their unemployment benefits.

The Shift Project, now based at the Kennedy School's Malcolm Weiner Center for Social Policy, was started by Schneider and Harknett in 2016 to study the economic uncertainty faced by service sector workers in the San Francisco Bay Area. It has grown into the largest source of data on work scheduling for hourly service workers in the retail and fast-food sectors from across the country. Schneider joined HKS from the University of California, Berkeley, in July.


Explore furtherAmerica's least educated and lowest paid remain hardest hit by pandemic

Provided by Harvard University

This story is published courtesy of the Harvard Gazette, Harvard University's official newspaper. For additional university news, visit Harvard.edu.

Volcanic eruptions may explain Denmark's giant mystery crystals

by University of Copenhagen

Photo of the Danish Island Fur and it's sediment layers. Credit: Nicolas Thibault

Some of the world's largest specimens of rare calcium carbonate crystals, known as glendonites, are found in Denmark.


The crystals were formed between 56 and 54 million years ago, during a period that is known to have had some of the highest temperatures in Earth's geologic history. Their presence has long stirred wonder among researchers the world over.

"Why we find glendonites from a hot period, when temperatures averaged above 35 degrees, has long been a mystery. It shouldn't be possible," explains Nicolas Thibault, an associate professor at the University of Copenhagen's Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management.

This is because glendonites are composed of ikaite, a mineral that is only stable, and can therefore only crystallize, at temperatures of less than four degrees Celsius.

Volcanoes responsible for cold intervals

In their new study, Nicolas Thibault, along with department colleagues Madeleine Vickers, Christian Bjerrum and Christoph Korte, performed chemical analyses of the Danish glendonites.

Their work reveals that the early Eocene Epoch, between 56 and 48 million years ago, was not at all as uniformly warm as once thought.

"Our study proves that there must have been periods of cold during the Eocene Epoch. Otherwise, these crystals couldn't exist—they would have simply melted. We also propose a suggestion for how this cooling might have happened, and in doing so, potentially solve the mystery of how glendonites in Denmark and the rest of the world came to be," says Nicolas Thibault. He adds:

"There were probably a large number of volcanic eruptions in Greenland, Iceland and Ireland during this period. These released sulphuric acid droplets into the stratosphere, which could have remained there for years, shading the planet from the sun and reflecting sunlight away. This helps to explain how regionally cold areas were possible, which is what affected the climate in early Eocene Denmark."

Layers of volcanic ash in rock

The presence of volcanic activity is revealed by, among other things, sedimentary layers visible on Fur, where layers of volcanic ash are clearly visible as bands in the coastal bluffs.

"Our study helps solve a mystery about glendonites, as well as demonstrating that cooler episodes are possible during otherwise warmer climates. The same can be said for today, as we wise up to the possibility of abrupt climate change," concludes Nicolas Thibault.


Explore further Throwing a warm sheet over our understanding of ice and climate
More information: Madeleine L. Vickers et al, Cold spells in the Nordic Seas during the early Eocene Greenhouse, Nature Communications (2020). DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-18558-7
Journal information: Nature Communications


Provided by University of Copenhagen

Scientists turn pineapple waste into high-value aerogels

by SciDev.Net

Formosa pineapples in the Philippines. Almost three times as much pineapple leaf waste is generated for every kilogram of produced fruit. Credit: Judgefloro

Harvesting of pineapples, a widely grown tropical fruit, leaves behind tons of agricultural residues which are usually burned or left to rot, creating undesirable greenhouse gases and other pollutants. But a new process promises to convert the waste into high value aerogels, cheaply and cleanly.

Aerogels are among the lightest solid materials known and are created by combining a polymer with a solvent to form a gel, and then removing the liquid from the gel and replacing it with air. They are extremely porous and have low density but remain firm to the touch.

Duong Hai Minh, a professor at the National University of Singapore's (NUS) department of mechanical engineering, estimates that every year 76.4 million tons of pineapple leaf waste is generated. He believes, this could release harmful chemicals and greenhouse gases that can cause serious environmental problems.

"For each kilogram of the fruit produced, almost three times as much pineapple leaf waste is generated. Farmers saddled with this bulky and fibrous by-product usually burn, compost, or repurpose it as animal feed," says Duong.

He and other NUS engineers have published their study on making aerogels from pineapple waste in the upcoming December edition of the Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering.

Commercial aerogels, used primarily for heat and sound insulation, are costly and the manufacturing process typically involves release of toxic levels of carbon, says Duong. His process uses pineapple leaf fibers to create ultra-light, biodegradable aerogels. They are effective as oil absorbents and for heat and sound insulation.

"We also have also demonstrated their potential applications in food preservation and wastewater treatment—this is a big step toward sustainable agriculture and waste management," he says.

Duong has been working on recycling different materials into aerogels for more than a decade. He has previously developed and patented techniques for creating aerogels from old rubber tires, coffee grounds and plastic bottles.

"Our latest work, to make eco-aerogels using agricultural and food waste, started in August 2016 and took three years to achieve promising results," says Duong. "We have also successfully produced eco-aerogels using sugarcane bagasse, coffee grounds and okra."


In the new process, pineapple fibers are extracted from the leaves using a decortication machine and then mixed with cross-linker polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and cured at 80 degrees Celsius to promote cross-linking between the fibers and PVA. On average, it takes 10—12 hours to produce aerogels from the raw materials, which is much faster than comparable processes.

"A one square meter sheet of eco-aerogel, measuring one centimeter in thickness, costs less than US$7 to produce, and can be sold for between US$22 and US$37. A commercially manufactured thermal insulation sheet made using conventional aerogels of about the same size may retail for more than US$220."

The NUS team is working with partners to pilot the large-scale production of these eco-aerogels for high-value applications such as food preservation, heat insulation, noise reduction, oil-spill cleaning and reusable masks for filtering toxic gases, dust particles and bacteria.

Pineapple is one of the most favored fruits in the world. The three biggest producers globally are Costa Rica, Brazil and the Philippines.

"The advanced technology to convert low-value pineapple residues into high-value engineering aerogels for food preservation and wastewater treatment will increase people's awareness of environmental protection by turning waste into useful materials with novel, interesting applications," says Phung Le, director of Refinery and Petrochemicals and the Technology Research Center at Ho Chi Minh City University of Technology, Vietnam.

"Although a complete procedure of waste recycling has not been developed thoroughly, this is an important step towards sustainable development to build creative and innovative thinking of our young generation about helping the environment and preserving nature," he adds.

Stephen Steiner, president of Aerogel Technologies, Boston, Mass., says the pineapple waste-derived eco-aerogels described in the study shows how "pore-solid architected materials that provide many of the value-added functional behaviors of traditional aerogels can be created at a fraction of the cost."

"One especially compelling aspect of the present work is that not only are the raw materials cheap, they can potentially be obtained at negative cost to the manufacturer," says Steiner. "With ancillary advantages such as potential for biocompatibility and biodegradability, Duong's eco-aerogels provide potential for applications ranging from insulation to packaging to medical technologies."


Explore further Researchers engineer the world's first aerogels made from scrap tires
More information: Zi En Lim et al. Functionalized pineapple aerogels for ethylene gas adsorption and nickel (II) ion removal applications, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.jece.2020.104524
Provided by SciDev.Net

Team develops eco-friendly, flame-retardant carbon plastic ideal for recycling

Provided by European Space Agency 

 ESA's detailed testing of this natural-fiber composite has helped it find wider terrestrial uses in turn, including inside McLaren Racing's Formula 1 cars.

Fibers from the flax plant, cultivated in Europe since the Stone Age, are weaved to make linen. An ESA project with Swiss companies Bcomp and RUAG looked into substituting them for carbon fibers, which are employed to make leading composite material 'carbon fiber reinforced plastic' (CFRP).

A strong yet light material, CFRP resembles reinforced concrete, where steel bars are added to a concrete mix in order to strengthen it. In a parallel manner, carbon fibers are mixed with epoxy resin to achieve a higher strength-to-weight ratio and rigidity. The resulting composite is used widely in satellite manufacturing, as well as the high-performance automotive and maritime sectors.

"The idea behind this Bio-Composite Structure in Space Applications project was to investigate the use of natural fibers in place of their carbon equivalents," explains ESA structural engineer Tiziana Cardone.

This flax-containing biocomposite satellite panel is a test version of a lateral structural panel for the Copernicus Sentinel-1 satellite – which aboard the actual mission has been made from aluminium. Credit: Bcomp

"There are two main reasons why: firstly to reduce the environmental impacts of space manufacturing, which is one of the main goals of ESA's Clean Space initiative. Our detailed Life Cycle Analysis shows this can cut carbon dioxide emissions by up to 75% compared to matching carbon fiber parts.

"In addition, in another link to Clean Space, we've been seeking out novel materials that can 'demise' more easily, meaning they can burn up more rapidly and completely during atmospheric reentry. This has been driven in turn by the requirements of Europe's space debris mitigation policy, requiring a less than 1 in 10 000 risk to people or property when satellites are disposed of at their end of life."

The project, led by ESA's Structures section and supported through the Agency's General Support Technology Programme, involved examining the flax fibers in terms of the highly demanding requirements of spaceflight.

"We found that they have exceptionally low thermal expansion—which is good in terms of the temperature extremes of orbital space—as well as high specific stiffness, and strength which can be retained right down to cryogenic temperatures," says ESA materials and processes specialist Ugo Lafont. "They are also able damp down vibration well, can endure ultraviolet radiation exposure and impede radio signals much less than carbon fibers."

Flax-based biocomposite structural panels were tested for demisability in simulated reentry conditions using a plasma wind tunnel at the Institute of Space Systems, IRS, in Stuttgart, Germany. Credit: IRS

The project team took Bcomp's patented thin-shell 'powerRib' natural-fiber composites as their starting point, using them to make a test version of a lateral structural panel for the Copernicus Sentinel-1 satellite—which in the case of the actual mission was made from aluminum.


"These panels are designed as 'targeted demisable points' for the satellite, intended to break up early to allow heat fluxes into the satellite interior earlier than would otherwise be the case," adds Tommaso Ghidini. Heading ESA's Structures, Mechanisms and Materials Division.

"The next step was to put these remade panels to the test in as realistic manner as possible, using a plasma wind tunnel at the Institute of Space Systems, IRS in Stuttgart, Germany. The IRS worked with ESA's Materials section to develop the demisability test procedure."

he resulting baptism of fire showed a positive result compared to traditional CFRP: while carbon fiber strands tend to endure in place while their surrounding matrix is burnt away, the flax fibers ablate apart much more rapidly.

Bcomp natural flax fibres laid down in epoxy, exposed to a plasma wind tunnel to simulate atmospheric reentry conditions, testing their 'demisability'. Testing took place at the Institute of Space Systems, IRS, in Stuttgart Germany. IRS worked with ESA’s Materials section to develop the demisability test procedure. Credit: ESA

The project's detailed characterisation of Bcomp's natural fiber composite also led to it finding new terrestrial customers: Sweden's Volta Trucks firm is using the composite for weight-saving and more environmentally friendly body panels.

McLaren Racing meanwhile has collaborated with Bcomp to manufacture Formula 1's first natural fiber composite racing seat. Possessing improved vibration-damping properties to a traditional CFRP seat, the new material also offers wider safety possibilities –carbon fibers are notorious for splintering during accidents, puncturing whe

"We're a small team, and working with ESA has taught us a lot," adds Régis Voillat of Bcomp, "which we've been able to apply in turn to a lot of our other projects. So this collaboration has supported the spread of sustainable technologies to other sectors as well."


Explore further

Team develops eco-friendly, flame-retardant carbon plastic ideal for recycling

Provided by European Space Agency

Restoring 30% of the world's ecosystems 

in priority areas could stave off extinctions and absorb CO2

by PUC-Rio

Credit: CC0 Public Domain

Returning specific ecosystems that have been replaced by farming to their natural state in all continents worldwide would rescue the majority of land-based species of mammals, amphibians and birds under threat of extinction. Such measures would also soak up more than 465 billion tons of carbon dioxide, according to a new report released today. Protecting 30% of the priority areas identified in the study, together with protecting ecosystems still in their natural form, would reduce carbon emissions equivalent to 49% of all the carbon that has built up in our atmosphere over the last two centuries. Some 27 researchers from 12 countries contributed to the report, which assesses forests, grasslands, shrublands, wetlands and arid ecosystems.


"Pushing forward on plans to return significant sweeps of nature to a natural state is critical to preventing ongoing biodiversity and climate crises from spinning out of control," said Bernardo B. N. Strassburg, the lead author of "Global priority areas for ecosystem restoration," published in Nature today. "We show that if we're smarter about where we restore nature, we can tick the climate, biodiversity and budget boxes on the world's urgent to-do list."

By identifying precisely which destroyed ecosystems worldwide should be restored to deliver biodiversity and climate benefits at a low cost without impact on agricultural production, the study is the first of its kind to provide global evidence that where restoration takes place has the most profound impact on the achievement of biodiversity, climate and food security goals. According to the study, restoration can be 13 times more cost-effective when it takes place in the highest priority locations.

In a first, the study focuses on the potential benefits of restoring both forest and non-forest ecosystems on a global scale. "Previous research has emphasized forests and tree planting, sometimes at the expense of native grasslands or other ecosystems, the destruction of which would be very detrimental for biodiversity and should be avoided. Our research shows that while reviving forests is critical for mitigating global warming and protecting biodiversity, other ecosystems also have a massive role to play," said Strassburg.

The new report in Nature builds on the U.N.'s dire warnings that we're on track to lose 1 million species in coming decades and that the world has mostly failed in its efforts to reach globally set biodiversity targets in 2020, including the goal to restore 15% of ecosystems worldwide. Nations are redoubling efforts to stave off mass extinctions in the leadup to the Convention on Biological Diversity COP15 in Kunming, China, in 2021, when a global framework to protect nature is expected to be signed. The new Nature report, which includes a co-author from the CBD, will inform the discussion around restoration and offer insight into how reviving ecosystems can help tackle multiple goals.


Using mapping technologies and a sophisticated multi-criteria optimization platform called PLANGEA, a mathematical approach that finds "slam dunk" solutions to address multiple problems, the researchers assessed 2,870 million hectares of ecosystems worldwide that have been converted to farmland. Of these, 54% were originally forests, 25% grasslands, 14% shrublands, 4% arid lands and 2% wetlands. They then evaluated these lands based on three factors, or objectives (animal habitats, carbon storage and cost-effectiveness) to determine which swathe—whether it's 5%, 15% or 30% —of lands worldwide would deliver the most benefits for biodiversity and carbon at the lowest cost when restored.

Researchers were further able to identify a global-level, multiple-benefits solution unconstrained by national boundaries that would deliver 91% of the potential benefit for biodiversity, 82% of the climate mitigation benefit, and reduce costs by 27% by focusing on areas with low implementation and opportunity costs.

When researchers looked at the benefits if the restoration were to take place at the national level—which means that each country would restore 15% of its forests—they saw a reduction in biodiversity benefits by 28% and climate benefits by 29%, a rise in costs by 52%.

"These results highlight the critical importance of international cooperation in meeting these goals. Different countries have different, complementary roles to play in meeting overarching global targets on biodiversity and climate," Strassburg said.

Responding to fears that restoring ecosystems will encroach on the land needed for crop production, researchers calculated how many ecosystems could be revived without cutting into food supplies. They found that 55%, or 1,578 million hectares, of ecosystems that had been converted to farmlands, could be restored without disrupting food production. This could be achieved through the well-planned and sustainable intensification of food production, together with a reduction in food waste and a shift away from foods such as meat and cheese, which require large amounts of land and therefore produce disproportionate greenhouse gas emissions.

"As government officials gradually refocus on global climate and biodiversity goals, our study provides them with the precise geographic information they need to make informed choices about where to restore ecosystems," said Robin Chazdon, one of the report authors.

The approach is already supporting implementation at national and local scales. It's attracting the attention of policymakers, NGOs and the private sector due to the substantial cost-benefit increase of restoration efforts. "We intend to help restoration achieve massive scales by aligning socioecological and financial interests, simultaneously increasing impacts for nature and people while improving returns and reducing risks for investors," said Strassburg.

Overall, the study provides compelling evidence to policymakers seeking affordable, efficient ways to meet United Nations goals around biodiversity, climate and, additionally, desertification, that restoration, when well-coordinated and carried out in combination with the protection of intact ecosystems and the better use of agricultural lands, is an unmatched, though currently underused, solution.

"Our results provide very strong evidence of the benefits of pursuing joint planning and implementation of climate and biodiversity solutions, which is particularly timely given the landmark meetings planned for 2021 of the associated UN conventions on climate biodiversity and land degradation," Strassburg said.

"The study also demonstrates a crucial but hitherto unexplored application of the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species," noted Thomas Brooks, chief scientist at the International Union for Conservation of Nature and a co-author of the study. "It will inform discussion next year at IUCN World Conservation Congress and fifteenth CBD Conference of the Parties regarding implementation of policy commitments, including the Bonn Challenge, the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration and the Sustainable Development Goals."

"A new focus on prioritizing multiple outcomes of restoring ecosystems beyond forests, and beyond country level area-based targets, calls for intensifying international cooperation to realize globally important benefits of restoring the Earth's precious ecosystems. We need to stimulate action for the sake of a healthy planet," said Chazdon.


Explore further  Scientists reveal urgent solutions for boosting Protected Areas effectiveness
More information: Global priority areas for ecosystem restoration, Nature (2020).                  DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2784-9
Journal information: Nature
Provided by PUC-Rio

How being more transparent over resources helps cut carbon emissions

by Neil Vowles, University of Sussex

Credit: CC0 Public Domain

Countries that sign up to improve financial transparency over oil, gas, and mining revenues benefit from significant reductions in carbon emissions, a new study by the University of Sussex Business School reveals.

Members of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI) have seen their carbon emissions reduce by 13% on average between 2000 and 2014 while the world average carbon footprint per capita grew by 23% over the same period, reveals the research from the Sussex Energy Group.

Study author Professor Benjamin K. Sovacool said while the relationship between EITI membership and carbon reductions is not necessarily deterministic, the scheme allowed countries to use recovered funds no longer lost to corruption to invest in more sustainable forms of energy and other environmental practices.

More than half of countries signing up to EITI have used it to address environmental payments, highlight environmental policies, and promote better natural resource and environmental management.

Prof Sovacool, Professor of Energy Policy at the University of Sussex Business School, said: "The EITI has induced changes throughout the industry without the need for more standard tools or approaches such as carbon permits, environmental standards, timetables, and mandates.

"The initiative challenges property rights concerning information about oil, gas, and minerals; prior to its creation, data on revenues was not in the public domain. Putting it there has focused attention on companies, generated press stories, sparked dialogue with local communities, and given investors and regulators ways to measure relative performance."

The study compared the performance of the first 12 countries to attain EITI Candidacy Status against the median of 218 countries between 2000 and the most recent data available in 2020 on social, economic, and political metrics using a unique World Bank dataset.

The study found that EITI countries performed better than the global average on benchmarks related to regulatory quality, rule of law, control of corruption, foreign direct investment, and interest rates.

Researchers found correlations between EITI membership and considerable growth in energy infrastructure investment and declines in rates of extreme poverty.

While the world saw a significant deterioration in regulatory quality over the past two decades of almost 50%, EITI countries slipped by only 4%. Similarly in terms of rule of law, most countries saw a median decline in performance of 60%, but EITI countries dropped by only 5%.

However EITI countries did not see universal improvement against the world average on all metrics. They performed worse in terms of voice and accountability, political stability and violence, governmental effectiveness, energy investment, and poverty gap.

EITI countries saw a 235 % decline in political stability while globally this improved by more than 11%. Countries on average enjoyed a 226% increase in private sector investment in energy, EITI countries just 30%.

Prof Sovacool believes the EITI's limited impact on economic governance is in part due to the scheme's narrow view of transparency, covering only a minor fraction of public sector revenues and excluding wider dimensions of the sector, such as environmental impact assessments, project siting, or community relocation, are not covered.

The EITI also only focuses on government oil revenue and not government spending, where the corruption is often far worse, the study author said.

The EITI is also flawed because of its voluntary approach which means countries are not legally mandated to adhere to the principles of transparency and face no fines, criminal charges, or other sanctions for noncompliance, Prof Sovacool explained.

He added: "The EITI is an important and necessary ingredient of a dish for sustainable development in natural resource dependent countries, but it is far from a complete diet. While it may enhance economic governance and foreign direct investment, EITI membership does not lead to increased stability, reduced poverty or improved democracy.

"But our findings do suggest that, when left to their own devices, corporations and governments in resource rich countries need not always race to the bottom to lower standards and perpetuate the resource curse."

Explore further Transparency is not a panacea for the resource curse, new study finds
More information: Benjamin K. Sovacool. Is sunshine the best disinfectant? Evaluating the global effectiveness of the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), The Extractive Industries and Society (2020). DOI: 10.1016/j.exis.2020.09.001
Provided by University of Sussex

From hurricanes to earthquakes, space station experiment overcomes challenges

by Melissa Gaskill, NASA

Camila Morales-Navas conducts final preparations on the Electrochemical Ammonia Removal system prior to parabolic flight testing. Credit: University of Puerto Rico

Space is hard, the saying goes, and conducting science in space presents challenges of its own. Few researchers have had to overcome hurricanes and earthquakes, though, just two of the hurdles a team of chemists in Puerto Rico faced getting their investigation to the International Space Station.

The investigation, Elucidating the Ammonia Electrochemical Oxidation Mechanism via Electrochemical Techniques at the ISS (Ammonia Electrooxidation) examines ammonia oxidation in microgravity.

Ammonia is a small molecule made up of nitrogen and hydrogen. Oxidation is a reaction involving oxygen that breaks up these molecules, producing nitrogen gas, water, and electrical energy. A compound in human urine, urea, can be converted to ammonia, making it an easily available resource. The oxidation process then can be used to produce water and energy, both critical needs on future long-term space missions, as are ways to remove ammonia from a spacecraft or habitat.

The team previously developed the Electrochemical Ammonia Removal system, or EAR, a setup similar to a battery that oxidizes ammonia electrochemically or with an electric current. They put EAR to the test on multiple parabolic flights, which provide scientists access to short-term microgravity by putting a plane into freefall. Results showed that microgravity decreased fuel cell performance 20 to 65 percent. The researchers suspected that the absence of buoyancy in microgravity caused the decrease, but needed to conduct more research to confirm that hypothesis.

"You only have about 25 seconds on parabolic flights," says principal investigator Carlos Cabrera, chemistry professor at University of Puerto Rico at Rio Piedras in San Juan. "So we wanted to use the space station to look at the process for a longer period of time."

The Ammonia Electrooxidation investigation proposal received approval from NASA in 2016 under the sponsorship of the ISS National Lab. The team first had to redesign their original flight equipment, shrinking the EAR from the size of a small refrigerator to something closer to a shoebox.

That task fell to Camila Morales-Navas, a chemistry Ph.D. student at the university who had worked on the parabolic flight tests.

Then Hurricane Maria swept across Dominica, St Croix, and Puerto Rico in September 2017. Losses totaled more than $91 billion, mostly in Puerto Rico, where nearly 3,000 people died. The category 5 storm also left the island's entire population without electricity. Five months later, a quarter of residents still lacked power.

"We had no power on campus until January 2018," says Morales-Navas. "We can figure things out on paper, but needed power to test configurations for the smaller equipment. Fortunately, we had a power generator in our lab at the Molecular Sciences Research Center, so we kept going."

More obstacles were yet to come. In late 2019 and early 2020, Puerto Rico experienced a series of earthquakes that once again took out the power, and the university closed until building inspections were completed. In March of this year, the global pandemic closed the campus and lab and in August, Tropical Storm Isaias knocked out power yet again.

"It's like extreme sports, living on this island these past three years," Morales-Navas says.

Through it all, she kept working, and by August 2020, had the smaller hardware ready. The investigation finally rode to the station on NG-14, the 14th cargo flight for Northrop Grumman's Cygnus resupply spacecraft that launched Oct. 2.

Operation of the experiment itself presents some challenges, too.

"The buoyancy-free environment of microgravity affects the reactions in the system," Morales-Navas says. "If the gaseous byproducts form as bubbles, it could block further reactions."

The researchers included repeated trials in their design so that, even if bubbles affect some of the runs, they still can collect data from the others.

"Astronauts who go to Mars will need energy," Cabrera adds. "Our objective is to bring the technology to a level of readiness for long-term missions."


Explore further Tropical Storm Isaias heads for Hispaniola with heavy rain
Provided by NASA

Which 'milk' is best for the environment? We compared dairy, nut, soy, hemp and grain milks

by Dora Marinova and Diana Bogueva, The Conversation
Credit: Shutterstock

Making eco-conscious choices at the shops can be tricky when we're presented with so many options, especially when it comes to milk. Should we buy plant-based milk, or dairy? We've looked at the evidence to help you choose.


Dairy has the biggest environmental footprint, by far

Any plant-based milk, be it made from beans, nuts or seeds, has a lighter impact than dairy when it comes to greenhouse gas emissions, as well as the use of water and land. All available studies, including systematic reviews, categorically point this out.

A 2018 study estimates dairy to be around three times more greenhouse gas emission-intensive than plant-based milks.

In the case of cow's milk, its global warming potential—measured as kilogram of carbon dioxide equivalent per liter of milk—varies between 1.14 in Australia and New Zealand to 2.50 in Africa. Compare this to the global warming potential of plant-based milks, which, on average, is just 0.42 for almond and coconut milk and 0.75 for soy milk.

What's more, dairy generally requires nine times more land than any of the plant-based alternatives. Every liter of cow's milk uses 8.9 square meters per year, compared to 0.8 for oat, 0.7 for soy, 0.5 for almond and 0.3 for rice milk.

Water use is similarly higher for cow's milk: 628 liters of water for every liter of dairy, compared to 371 for almond, 270 for rice, 48 for oat and 28 for soy milk.

Milks from nuts

Milk can be made from almost any nuts, but almond, hazelnut and coconut are proving popular. Not only do nut milks generally require smaller land areas, the trees they grow on absorb carbon and, at the end of their life, produce useful woody biomass.

Still, there are vast differences in the geographical conditions where various nut trees are grown.

Almond

California is the largest producer of almond milk in the world, followed by Australia.

Hazelnuts, and other nuts, grow on trees which require smaller land areas. Credit: Shutterstock

Compared to other plant-based milk options, its water use is much higher and largely depends on freshwater irrigation. One kernel of California almond requires 12 liters of water, which raises questions about the industrial production of these nuts in water-scarce areas.


However the biggest environmental concern with almond production in the US is the high mortality of bees, used for tree cross-pollination. This might be because the bees are exposed to pesticides, including glyphosate, and the intensive industrial agriculture which drastically transforms nature's fragile ecosystems.

In Australia, where almond orchards are smaller-scale and less industrialized, beekeepers do not experience such problems. Still, millions of bees are needed, and fires, drought, floods, smoke and heat damage can threaten their health.

Coconut

Generally, the environmental performance of coconut milk is good—coconut trees use small amounts of water and absorb carbon dioxide.

Yet as coconuts are grown only in tropical areas, the industrial production of this milk can destroy wildlife habitat. Increasing global demand for coconut milk is likely to put further pressure on the environment and wildlife, and deepen these conflicts.

Hazelnut

Hazelnut is a better option for the environment as the trees are cross-pollinated by wind which carries airborne dry pollen between neighboring plants, not bees.

Hazelnuts also grow in areas with higher rainfall around the Black Sea, Southern Europe and in North America, demanding much less water than almond trees.

Hazelnut milk is already commercially available and although its demand and production are rising, the cultivation of the bush trees is not yet subjected to intensive large-scale operations.

Milks from legumes

Soy milk has been used for millennia in China and has already an established presence in the West, but the hemp alternative is relatively new.

All legumes are nitrogen fixing. This means the bacteria in plant tissue produce nitrogen, which improves soil fertility and reduces the need for fertilizers. Legumes are also water-efficient, particularly when compared with almonds and dairy.
Industrial hemp growing in a field in North Dakota. Credit: North Dakota Department of Agriculture

Soy

Soy milk has a very good environmental performance in terms of water, global warming potential and land-use.

The US and Brazil are the biggest suppliers of soybeans, and the plant is very versatile when it comes to its commercial uses, with a large share of the beans used as livestock feed.

However, a major environmental concern is the need to clear and convert large swathes of native vegetation to grow soybeans. An overall reduction in the demand for meat and animal-based foods could potentially decrease the need to produce large amounts of soybeans for animal feed, but we're yet to witness such changes.

Hemp

The environmental benefits of hemp milk make it a game-changer.

Its seeds are processed for oil and milk, but the plant itself is very versatile—all its parts can be used as construction material, textile fibers, pulp and paper or hemp-based plastics.

Its roots grow deep, which improves the soil structure and reduces the presence of fungi. It's also resistant to diseases, and it produces a lot of shade, which supresses the growth of weeds. This, in turn, cuts down the need for herbicides and pesticides.

Hemp requires more water than soy, but less than almond and dairy. Despite being one of the oldest crops used, particularly in Europe, hemp is produced in very low quantities.

Milks from grains

We can produce plant-based milk from almost any grains, but rice and oat are proving popular. However, they require more land compared with nut milks.

Oat production is mostly used to feed livestock. Credit: Kaffee Meister/Unsplash, CC BY

Rice

Rice milk has a big water footprint. More notably, it's associated with higher greenhouse gas emissions compared to the other plant-based options because methane-producing bacteria develop in the rice paddies.

In some cases, rice milk may contain unacceptable levels of arsenic. And applying fertilizers to boost yields can pollute nearby waterways.

Oat

Oat milk has been becoming increasingly popular around the world because of its overall environmental benefits.

But similar to soy, the bulk of oat production is used for livestock feed and any reduction in the demand for animal-based foods would decrease the pressure on this plant.

Currently grown in Canada and the US, most oat operations are large-scale monoculture, which means it's the only type of crop grown in a large area. This practice depletes the soil's fertility, limits the diversity of insects and increases the risk of diseases and pest infection.

Oats are also typically grown with glyphosate-based pesticides, which tarnishes its environmental credentials because it can cause glyphosate-resistant plant, animal and insect pathogens to proliferate.

The final message: diversify your choices

Organic versions of all these plant-based milks are better for the environment because they use, for example, fewer chemical fertilizers, they're free from pesticides and herbicides, and they put less pressure on the soils. Any additives, be it fortifiers, such as calcium or vitamins, flavors or additional ingredients, such as sugar, coffee or chocolate, should be taken into account separately.

Packaging is also very important to consider. Packaging contributes 45% of the global warming potential of California's almond milk. And it's worth keeping in mind that wasting milk has a much bigger environmental footprint, and questions the ethics of how humans exploit the animal world.

If, as a consumer you are trying to reduce the environmental footprint of the milk you drink, the first message is you should avoid dairy and replace it with plant-based options.

The second message is it's better to diversify the plant-based milks we use. Shifting to only one option, even if it's the most environmentally friendly one for the time being, means the market demand may potentially become overexploited.


Explore further Soy, oat, almond, rice, coconut, dairy: Which milk is best for our health?
Provided by The Conversation

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.