Where the Pandemic Leaves the Climate Movement
Anneleen Kenis
Manuel Arias-Maldonado
Paolo Cossarini
Susan Baker
GREEN TRANSITION
21 AUGUST 2020
As the entire globe is in the middle of an unprecedented pandemic, with great economic, social, and environmental consequences, it is worth recalling mass mobilisations like Extinction Rebellion and Fridays For Future which took the global scene in spring 2019. A year on, it is time to examine their claims and impact on public awareness of the climate emergency as well as current political discourse and policymaking. Paolo Cossarini spoke with three scholars from different European countries who highlight fundamental themes these movements helped bring to the fore. What emerges is a nuanced theoretical and practical debate about citizens’ mobilisation, green transition, and the prospects of climate action.
Paolo Cossarini: A year ago, Extinction Rebellion (XR) shut down London’s streets, as did Fridays for Future (FFF) in cities across the globe, making headlines worldwide. In 2020, streets have been shut down once more to prevent a health crisis. One year on, how have these movements shifted the debate on climate change?
Manuel Arias-Maldonado: In my view, these movements have not been as important as the increase in extreme weather events that have shaken public opinions in the last years, creating a feeling of urgency the movements themselves can profit from. It is the sense that something is palpably changing that propels public awareness. Protest movements are relevant, among young people especially, but they would be helpless in the absence of such material conditions which are, admittedly, as much objective as they are mediated by mass media.
Susan Baker: The climate movement is positive. However, the emphasis on “listen to science” is potentially problematic in that it fails to grasp that science does not reveal the truth but aspects of what is known. Climate science is narrow: it defines the issue in the language and framework of the natural sciences, ignoring the main causes of and solutions to climate change which lie in the social world in general, and in our economic model in particular. Neither of these groups have a critical grasp of the fundamental causes of climate change.
the emphasis on “listen to science” is potentially problematic in that it fails to grasp that science does not reveal the truth but aspects of what is known.
While XR and FFF have promoted public awareness, both are very moderate voices and have, consequently, shrunk the space for radical ones. On climate action, their focus on transition favours technocratic responses as opposed to radical transformation. It is therefore likely that transition management (transition to low carbon futures that allows for business as usual), as opposed to transformation, will take centre stage in climate action.
Where do you think the Covid-19 pandemic leaves the climate movement?
Anneleen Kenis: XR and FFF are remarkably absent in the current crisis though they seem to be slowly becoming more active again. The coronavirus pandemic might give the feeling that there are more important things to focus on now, but nothing could be further from the truth. In reality, the Covid-19 crisis is instructive because it has unveiled how societies deal with emergencies, the place of science in the public debate, and human-nature relationships. Furthermore, the pandemic could nudge us in the direction of a radically different, much more sustainable society, but it could also lead us to a society characterised by authoritarian control, moralisation, and securitisation.
the Covid-19 crisis is instructive because it has unveiled how societies deal with emergencies, the place of science in the public debate, and human-nature relationships.
There is no neutral answer to the coronavirus crisis, just as there is no neutral answer to climate change. What’s more, the pandemic continues to raise crucial questions: who will foot the bill? Will large economic sectors like the airline industry be saved with taxpayers’ money? What conditions will these sectors have to meet? Will generating even more profit and growth be an indispensable mission? Will the coronavirus-induced economic crisis be used to demarcate certain sectors as crucial and others as not? Will we invest in healthcare and public schooling instead of (polluting) companies?
Manuel Arias-Maldonado: Nobody knows. There are reasons to think that climate action may be encouraged after the pandemic – or even during the pandemic if it doesn’t end soon – as well as to fear that the return to normality will prioritise economic growth over sustainability concerns or climate mitigation. Mobilising the public all depends on how people will feel after this is over.
In the meantime, it may be possible to seize temporary feelings to rally support for climate-friendly coronavirus response legislation as a way to ensure a cleaner exit from the crisis. The climate movement can play a role in this mobilisation process by framing the pandemic as the first true catastrophe of the Anthropocene. However, this card should not be overplayed since the link is not always clear. Alternatively, the pandemic can be portrayed as an expression of careless modernity, one that does not take into account, for example, food security. This depiction brings globalisation and the call to make it more sustainable centre stage.
Susan Baker: It is clear that government-imposed restrictions on social gatherings have impacted the activities of climate activist groups. So far, FFF has stopped their street presence and XR have ceased their highly visible forms of public protest. They nevertheless continued their activism online throughout the lockdown. These groups relied heavily on civil protest to raise public awareness, believing that this would force governments and other key stakeholders to act. It is harder to credit posting a selfie with a placard during lockdown with the same impact. Digital activism can be easily dismissed as an individualised activity while the marches that took place in the streets, often noisily, can hardly be written off.
In the public arena, there is a danger that the voices that speak for nature and that seek climate action will once again become marginalised. There continues to be a great deal of attention paid to how to manage the pandemic, as we would expect. At the same time, there is a lack of discussion on the underlying causes – which lie in the destruction of ecosystems for trafficking of species – and how the problem will be addressed at source.
Despite these challenges, the quietening of our streets and the cleaning of our air during lockdowns have allowed people to see and hear nature again. Here lies the hope that people can carry this experience forward to form a new political consciousness about the environmentally destructive nature of our economic activities and the possibility of an alternative future.
Do you think an overhaul of the relationship between our economic systems and the environment is possible in the current moment? How can we make a green transition attractive to the economic and political forces desperately trying to stay afloat and return to business as usual?
Anneleen Kenis: I would start by questioning this question: do we really have to make sustainability attractive to economic forces and industry? Or should we rather put economic forces and industry under pressure to change? The environmental movement has bought too much into the idea that we can get everyone on board if we come up with an “attractive” vision. It reinforces the idea that we can save the world with technofixes, that nothing really has to change, and that air transport does not have to be fundamentally questioned after all. We need to apply pressure now that it is possible. Or refuse to rescue them: we should simply say “no” and take proper measures to ensure that future companies do not have all the tax and other advantages that the aviation sector has.
While a certain level of “greening” the capitalist economy is possible (capitalists can make money selling solar panels just as they make money selling coal or oil), there is a fundamental clash. This clash has several aspects and dimensions, but the huge cleavage is between pursuing economic growth and reducing pressure on the ecosystems we are fundamentally a part of.
Manuel Arias-Maldonado: Before the pandemic, I would have answered that winning the support of economic and political forces is possible by making a green transition both unnegotiable and profitable. The transition could be framed as something unavoidable but a possible source of innovation and value.
Now, the world has stopped for some time and I think that public perception will be impacted for two reasons. Firstly, the dangers associated with the Anthropocene have been highlighted. Secondly, lockdowns have shown that life can be better: cleaner, healthier, slower.
There is no one way to stop climate change but several.
Additionally, the economic situation may provide governments with the opportunity to foster new energy technologies, thus giving some unexpected momentum to the green transition. Emmanuel Macron has hinted that polluted air will not be tolerated anymore. Well, this is the time to start.
There is no one way to stop climate change but several. Some are more capitalist-friendly – by way of technological innovation and productivity and efficiency gains – while others are more community-based and depend on reducing the size of the economy.
Susan Baker: At present, there is a dynamic interplay between pressure for change and the return to old ways. Climate change has shown that it is no longer possible to see our economic activity in isolation from its ecological and social consequences. This realisation calls upon us to question equating human progress with the domination of nature.
Economic actors need to take responsibility for their actions. It is not a question of “making it attractive to them”. Attractive, in the traditional economic sense, means that the activity can be the source of profits. This model that allows some in society to generate excessive wealth at the cost of others, including nature, needs to change. We must change what is produced, how it is produced, evaluate who benefits, and at what cost. It would be a moral hazard to make a green transition attractive when what we need is a green transformation of society.
We must change what is produced, how it is produced, evaluate who benefits, and at what cost.
Do you think that there’s the potential for a paradigm shift away from an economy based on growth? What about the balance between collective and individual action?
Anneleen Kenis: There are many consumer goods with huge ecological costs for which it cannot be sincerely argued that they are essential to lead a healthy and comfortable life. The global fashion industry contributes more to climate change than shipping and aviation together. This is no surprise considering that, in the UK for instance, 300 000 items of clothes are thrown away every year [read more on the impacts of fast fashion]. A first step to promoting degrowth is banning advertisement. People are told on an almost continuous basis that they need all this stuff.
Everyone who has the capacity to make personal changes should consider doing so. However, as Giorgos Kallis argues, it is much easier, much more motivating, and more impactful to do so collectively [read about Kallis’ insights on limits and autonomy]. I decided 10 years ago not to fly anymore, but what difference does it make? If we were to make a similar commitment collectively, the impact could be huge.
Manuel Arias-Maldonado: There is no consensus on degrowth as the way to go in terms of building a particular kind of society. It would be an accepted model if it was the only way to prevent planetary collapse – which it is not. There are alternative ways to promote decarbonisation and sustainability and governments should focus on those. What’s more, economic growth still matters as a way of producing welfare and wellbeing. Degrowth must, therefore, be defended as a morally valuable choice. If it were to persuade a majority, it would be the blueprint for a new way of living.
As I see it, relying on such collective sacrifice is utterly unrealistic. Nevertheless, people should be made aware of the fact that human habitation of the planet depends on the planet’s conditions, which in turn depend on how people behave. This understanding could bring our planetary impact into focus and potentially lead to better policy and technological innovation.
Susan Baker: The growth-oriented model of development pursued by Western industrial societies cannot be carried into the future, either in its present forms or at its present pace, as evidenced by climate change. We cannot have continuous growth in a system characterised by resource limits and planetary boundaries. Climate change has been caused by a growth-orientated model, achieved through ever-increasing levels of consumption. This artificially stimulated consumption brings untold wealth for the few and impoverishment for the many. Many now also reject the idea that consumption is the most important contributor to human welfare. This new value is not compatible with capitalism. Degrowth is no longer a radical alternative, but a necessity.
We cannot have continuous growth in a system characterised by resource limits and planetary boundaries.
A healthy society and the wellbeing of its members rests on acts of services and the sense of community rather than on consumption. Adopting this model requires changing our values so that one’s social standing is not determined by what they consume and put on display, but by how they engage in society to protect the interests of others, including those of other life forms, in ways that promote justice and equity.
While personal change is important, structural factors can make them unsustainable. To move to a new model of economy and society, everyday actions would need to be accompanied by structural changes. As we rethink, for example, the way we travel, our food and energy consumption, the structures underlying these – trade, financial, food systems and our economic system overall – must be transformed as well.
Wednesday, November 18, 2020
A God of Time and Space: New Perspectives
on Bob Dylan and Religion
Volume editor: Robert W. Kvalvaag, Geir Winje
Chapter authors: Reidar Aasgaard, Erling Aadland, Pål Ketil Botvar, Gisle Selnes, Anders Thyrring Andersen, Petter Fiskum Myhr
Synopsis
This book is a collection of essays on Bob Dylan and religion. The eight scientific essays present new perspectives on the subject, aiming to elucidate the role played by religion in Bob Dylan’s artistic output and in the reception history of some of his songs.
Few would dispute the fact that religion or religious traditions and the use of religious imagery have always played an important role in Dylan’s artistry. Scholars agree that the term “religion” is ambiguous and not easy to define, and a critical attitude to the whole concept of religion is traceable in Dylan’s lyrics. However, in several interviews Dylan has also revealed a positive attitude towards religion, and explained that the source of his religiosity is in the music and in old, traditional songs.
DOWNLOAD FULL PDF
on Bob Dylan and Religion
Chapter authors: Reidar Aasgaard, Erling Aadland, Pål Ketil Botvar, Gisle Selnes, Anders Thyrring Andersen, Petter Fiskum Myhr
Synopsis
This book is a collection of essays on Bob Dylan and religion. The eight scientific essays present new perspectives on the subject, aiming to elucidate the role played by religion in Bob Dylan’s artistic output and in the reception history of some of his songs.
Few would dispute the fact that religion or religious traditions and the use of religious imagery have always played an important role in Dylan’s artistry. Scholars agree that the term “religion” is ambiguous and not easy to define, and a critical attitude to the whole concept of religion is traceable in Dylan’s lyrics. However, in several interviews Dylan has also revealed a positive attitude towards religion, and explained that the source of his religiosity is in the music and in old, traditional songs.
DOWNLOAD FULL PDF
https://press.nordicopenaccess.no/index.php/noasp/catalog/book/74
CHAPTERS (PDF TO DOWNLOAD)
Introduction: Bob Dylan and Religion: New Perspectives from the North Country
Robert W. Kvalvaag, Geir Winje
Chapter 1: "Señor (Tales of Yankee Power)": A Window into Bob Dylan's Existential and Religious World
Reidar Aasgaard
Chapter 2: "The Titanic sails at dawn": Bob Dylan, "Tempest", and the Apocalyptic Imagination
Robert W. Kvalvaag
Chapter 3: Against Liberals: Multi-layered and Multi-directed Invocation in Bob Dylan's Christian Songs
Erling Aadland
Chapter 4: When the Wind is the Answer. The Use of Bob Dylan Songs in Worship Services in Protestant Churches
Pål Ketil Botvar
Chapter 5: The Visual Dylan: Religious Art, Social Semiotics and Album Covers
Geir Winje
Chapter 6: Bob Dylan's Conversions: The "Gospel Years" as Symptom and Transition
Gisle Selnes
Chapter 7: Hard Rain: The End of Times and Christian Modernism in the work of Bob Dylan
Anders Thyrring Andersen
Chapter 8: Bob Dylan's Ten Commandments – a Method for Personal Transformation
Petter Fiskum Myhr
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Robert W. Kvalvaag
Robert W. Kvalvaag is professor at Oslo Metropolitan University, where he teaches religious studies at the Faculty of Teacher Education and International Studies. He has published three books (in Norwegian): From Moses to Marley, The divine I, and The Eleventh Commandment: Religion and Rock and Roll. Together with Pål Ketil Botvar and Reidar Aasgaard he also edited and contributed to Bob Dylan: The Man, the Myth and the Music. The writer of numerous articles on religion and popular culture published in anthologies and journals, his output has included works on Dylan’s use of the Bible in the early songs, and a study of the influence of Hal Lindsey on Dylan’s oeuvre in the so-called Gospel period.
Geir Winje
Geir Winje is professor in the science of religion. He works at the University of South-Eastern Norway, mostly with teacher education on different levels. He does research and publishes on three main fields: didactics of religion, art and religion, and modernity and religion. Some central books: Felles, grunnleggende verdier? Menneskerettigheter og religionspluralisme i skolen (Common, basic values? Human Rights and religious pluralism in school, 2017), Guddommelig skjønnhet. Kunst i religionene (Divine Beauty. Art in the Religions, 2nd ed. 2012), Hekser og healere. Religion og spiritualitet i det moderne (Whitches and Healers. Religion and Spirituality in Modernity, 2007).
Reidar Aasgaard
Reidar Aasgaard is Professor of Intellectual History at the Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas (IFIKK), University of Oslo. He has published books and articles in English and Norwegian on the history of childhood, the New Testament, Late Antiquity, and early Christian apocrypha. He has worked as a Bible translator and translated classical texts from Greek and Latin into Norwegian. Aasgaard has also edited a volume on Bob Dylan in Norwegian (with Botvar and Kvalvaag) and since 2011 has been responsible for a popular lecture series on Dylan at History of Ideas.
Erling Aadland
Erling Aadland has published a number of books on poetry and literary theory, among them books about Bob Dylan and Leonard Cohen. Latest monograph: The world of Literature, an Examination of Literature’s Antinomies, Vidarforlaget: Oslo, 2019. Book about Dylan: "And the Moon Is High", Attempting to Read Bob Dylan, Ariadne: Bergen, 1998. A number of essays on Dylan, including: “Work, Performance and Performancework”, Bøygen 2/2007; “We are not there (1967)”, Agora 1–2/2007; “One Big Prison Yard”, on (in)justice in some Dylan-songs”, Bøygen 3/2008; “Dylan and Love”, in: Bob Dylan, mannen, myten og musikken, Dreyer: Oslo, 2011; “He Got the Skills and He Got the Guts, Bob Dylan’s Alternating Interaction with the Blues”, Agora 1–2/2013.
Pål Ketil Botvar
Pål Ketil Botvar gained his PhD in political science from the University of Oslo, 2009. He is professor in sociology of religion at the faculty of humanities and education, University of Agder, Norway. Botvar has been co-editor on Bob Dylan – mannen, myten og musikken (The man, the myth and the music), together with R. Aasgaard and R. W. Kvalvaag. He has also written two articles about Bob Dylan: «Med Bob Dylan som liturg», 2013 ("Bob Dylan as Officiant"), and "With God on Our Side. Bob Dylan i norsk kirkeliv", 2013 ("With God on Our Side. Bob Dylan in Norwegian church life").
Gisle Selnes
Gisle Selnes is professor in Comparative literature at the University of Bergen, Norway, where he also directs the Research group for Radical Philosophy and literature (RFL). Selnes has written numerous articles on literary, philosophical, cultural and historical issues, ranging from colonial Latin American writings to Lacanian psychoanalysis. His books include Det fjerde kontinentet. Essays om America og andre fremmede fenomener (The Fourth Continent. Essays on America and Others Strange Phenomena, 2010), on the topic of discovery, critical theory and the origins of the essay as a genre; an annotated translation of César Vallejo’s Trilce; and the voluminous Den store sangen. Kapitler av en bok om Bob Dylan (The Everlasting Song. Chapters from a Book on Bob Dylan, 2016). In addition, Selnes has published a number of popular essays on Dylan in the press and lectured widely on Dylan’s poetics of song lyrics to an academic as well as to a more general audience.
Anders Thyrring Andersen
Anders Thyrring Andersen is Master of Arts, Comparative Literature, parish priest at Vor Frue Kirke in Aarhus, Denmark. Publications on Bob Dylan: Hvor dejlige havfruer svømmer. Om Bob Dylans digtning, Syddansk Universitetsforlag 2013; “Knockin’ On Heaven’s Door”, Geni og apostel. Litteratur og teologi, Anis 2006; “En fortjent Nobelpris”, Studenterkredsen no. 1, January 2019; a number of newspaper articles and appearances on National Public Radio. Has written a lot about the relationship between literature and Christianity, among other titles Polspænding. Forførelse og dialog hos Martin A. Hansen, Gyldendal 2011, and At forføre til tavshed. Søren Kierkegaard præsenteret, Dansklærerforeningen 2002. Recipient of Blicherprisen 2009 and Martin A. Hansen Prisen 2011.
Petter Fiskum Myhr
Petter Fiskum Myhr gained his cand. philol. in literature from the University of Bergen. He has worked as a journalist and editor for the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. He was the first director of Rockheim, the national museum for popular music in Norway. Since 2013 he has been the director for Trondheim International Olavsfest. Petter Fiskum Myhr has written and contributed to several books about Bob Dylan, among them: Bob Dylan – jeg er en annen, Oslo: Historie og Kultur 2011, Bob Dylan. Mannen, myten og musikken. Oslo: Dreyer Forlag, 2011 and Bob Dylan Leksikon. Oslo: Historie & Kultur, 2012.
CHAPTERS (PDF TO DOWNLOAD)
Introduction: Bob Dylan and Religion: New Perspectives from the North Country
Robert W. Kvalvaag, Geir Winje
Chapter 1: "Señor (Tales of Yankee Power)": A Window into Bob Dylan's Existential and Religious World
Reidar Aasgaard
Chapter 2: "The Titanic sails at dawn": Bob Dylan, "Tempest", and the Apocalyptic Imagination
Robert W. Kvalvaag
Chapter 3: Against Liberals: Multi-layered and Multi-directed Invocation in Bob Dylan's Christian Songs
Erling Aadland
Chapter 4: When the Wind is the Answer. The Use of Bob Dylan Songs in Worship Services in Protestant Churches
Pål Ketil Botvar
Chapter 5: The Visual Dylan: Religious Art, Social Semiotics and Album Covers
Geir Winje
Chapter 6: Bob Dylan's Conversions: The "Gospel Years" as Symptom and Transition
Gisle Selnes
Chapter 7: Hard Rain: The End of Times and Christian Modernism in the work of Bob Dylan
Anders Thyrring Andersen
Chapter 8: Bob Dylan's Ten Commandments – a Method for Personal Transformation
Petter Fiskum Myhr
AUTHOR BIOGRAPHIES
Robert W. Kvalvaag
Robert W. Kvalvaag is professor at Oslo Metropolitan University, where he teaches religious studies at the Faculty of Teacher Education and International Studies. He has published three books (in Norwegian): From Moses to Marley, The divine I, and The Eleventh Commandment: Religion and Rock and Roll. Together with Pål Ketil Botvar and Reidar Aasgaard he also edited and contributed to Bob Dylan: The Man, the Myth and the Music. The writer of numerous articles on religion and popular culture published in anthologies and journals, his output has included works on Dylan’s use of the Bible in the early songs, and a study of the influence of Hal Lindsey on Dylan’s oeuvre in the so-called Gospel period.
Geir Winje
Geir Winje is professor in the science of religion. He works at the University of South-Eastern Norway, mostly with teacher education on different levels. He does research and publishes on three main fields: didactics of religion, art and religion, and modernity and religion. Some central books: Felles, grunnleggende verdier? Menneskerettigheter og religionspluralisme i skolen (Common, basic values? Human Rights and religious pluralism in school, 2017), Guddommelig skjønnhet. Kunst i religionene (Divine Beauty. Art in the Religions, 2nd ed. 2012), Hekser og healere. Religion og spiritualitet i det moderne (Whitches and Healers. Religion and Spirituality in Modernity, 2007).
Reidar Aasgaard
Reidar Aasgaard is Professor of Intellectual History at the Department of Philosophy, Classics, History of Art and Ideas (IFIKK), University of Oslo. He has published books and articles in English and Norwegian on the history of childhood, the New Testament, Late Antiquity, and early Christian apocrypha. He has worked as a Bible translator and translated classical texts from Greek and Latin into Norwegian. Aasgaard has also edited a volume on Bob Dylan in Norwegian (with Botvar and Kvalvaag) and since 2011 has been responsible for a popular lecture series on Dylan at History of Ideas.
Erling Aadland
Erling Aadland has published a number of books on poetry and literary theory, among them books about Bob Dylan and Leonard Cohen. Latest monograph: The world of Literature, an Examination of Literature’s Antinomies, Vidarforlaget: Oslo, 2019. Book about Dylan: "And the Moon Is High", Attempting to Read Bob Dylan, Ariadne: Bergen, 1998. A number of essays on Dylan, including: “Work, Performance and Performancework”, Bøygen 2/2007; “We are not there (1967)”, Agora 1–2/2007; “One Big Prison Yard”, on (in)justice in some Dylan-songs”, Bøygen 3/2008; “Dylan and Love”, in: Bob Dylan, mannen, myten og musikken, Dreyer: Oslo, 2011; “He Got the Skills and He Got the Guts, Bob Dylan’s Alternating Interaction with the Blues”, Agora 1–2/2013.
Pål Ketil Botvar
Pål Ketil Botvar gained his PhD in political science from the University of Oslo, 2009. He is professor in sociology of religion at the faculty of humanities and education, University of Agder, Norway. Botvar has been co-editor on Bob Dylan – mannen, myten og musikken (The man, the myth and the music), together with R. Aasgaard and R. W. Kvalvaag. He has also written two articles about Bob Dylan: «Med Bob Dylan som liturg», 2013 ("Bob Dylan as Officiant"), and "With God on Our Side. Bob Dylan i norsk kirkeliv", 2013 ("With God on Our Side. Bob Dylan in Norwegian church life").
Gisle Selnes
Gisle Selnes is professor in Comparative literature at the University of Bergen, Norway, where he also directs the Research group for Radical Philosophy and literature (RFL). Selnes has written numerous articles on literary, philosophical, cultural and historical issues, ranging from colonial Latin American writings to Lacanian psychoanalysis. His books include Det fjerde kontinentet. Essays om America og andre fremmede fenomener (The Fourth Continent. Essays on America and Others Strange Phenomena, 2010), on the topic of discovery, critical theory and the origins of the essay as a genre; an annotated translation of César Vallejo’s Trilce; and the voluminous Den store sangen. Kapitler av en bok om Bob Dylan (The Everlasting Song. Chapters from a Book on Bob Dylan, 2016). In addition, Selnes has published a number of popular essays on Dylan in the press and lectured widely on Dylan’s poetics of song lyrics to an academic as well as to a more general audience.
Anders Thyrring Andersen
Anders Thyrring Andersen is Master of Arts, Comparative Literature, parish priest at Vor Frue Kirke in Aarhus, Denmark. Publications on Bob Dylan: Hvor dejlige havfruer svømmer. Om Bob Dylans digtning, Syddansk Universitetsforlag 2013; “Knockin’ On Heaven’s Door”, Geni og apostel. Litteratur og teologi, Anis 2006; “En fortjent Nobelpris”, Studenterkredsen no. 1, January 2019; a number of newspaper articles and appearances on National Public Radio. Has written a lot about the relationship between literature and Christianity, among other titles Polspænding. Forførelse og dialog hos Martin A. Hansen, Gyldendal 2011, and At forføre til tavshed. Søren Kierkegaard præsenteret, Dansklærerforeningen 2002. Recipient of Blicherprisen 2009 and Martin A. Hansen Prisen 2011.
Petter Fiskum Myhr
Petter Fiskum Myhr gained his cand. philol. in literature from the University of Bergen. He has worked as a journalist and editor for the Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation. He was the first director of Rockheim, the national museum for popular music in Norway. Since 2013 he has been the director for Trondheim International Olavsfest. Petter Fiskum Myhr has written and contributed to several books about Bob Dylan, among them: Bob Dylan – jeg er en annen, Oslo: Historie og Kultur 2011, Bob Dylan. Mannen, myten og musikken. Oslo: Dreyer Forlag, 2011 and Bob Dylan Leksikon. Oslo: Historie & Kultur, 2012.
The long, harsh Fimbul winter is not a myth
Probably half of Norway and Sweden’s population died. Researchers now know more and more about the catastrophic year of 536.
The Fenris wolf swallows the sun. The climate disaster that began the year 536 was surely the most dramatic cooling of the Earth that humans, animals and plants have experienced in the last two thousand years. It was likely due to two large volcanic explosions, which every few years sent huge amounts of fine dust high into the atmosphere. There was dust for several years. The sun disappeared. This became another story in the imagination and myths of men. (Drawing: Louis Moe)
NASA and a Swedish archaeologist
The new hunt for the Fimbul winter began with the US space agency NASA, in 1983.
“The winter called the Fimbul winter is coming. Snow flies from everywhere. There are strong, cold and sharp winds. No living thing enjoys the sun. There are three such winters — without summers in between,” Snorre writes in his book Edda. The Fimbul winter (fimbulvetr) was a warning that Ragnarok, the end of the world, was coming. Many have wondered if the myth of the Fimbul winter could be based on something that really happened. Now scientists know that this is the case.
Several years with no summer
The Fimbul winter then, meant several years in succession without a summer — which would have consequences about which we can only speculate for people who lived in the far north 1500 years ago.
Gräslund was also the first to estimate that the population of Sweden was halved in the 500s.
In the early years, many did not believe Gräslund's hypothesis.
In 2007 he publishes the article “Fimbulvintern, Ragnarök och klimatkrisen år 536–537 e. Kr.” (Fimbulvintern, Ragnarök and the climate crisis in the year 536–537 AD) in the Swedish journal Saga och sed.
After that, researchers began their hunt for the Fimbul winter in earnest.
Natural scientists and archaeologists make discoveries
In recent years, many discoveries have been made that clearly suggest that Bo Gräslund is right.
In Norway, pollen has been found deep in several bogs, evidence of a dramatic event that clearly changed the cultural landscape for a long time afterwards.
Tree rings from old trees provide another important clue.
Now that archaeologists know what to look for, these scientists are also finding more and more clues in their material. Today, archaeologists see that something dramatic happened to the farmsteads in Norway and Sweden 1500 years ago.
People moved. Or they disappeared. There are almost no grave finds from this period. Fine jewellery was no longer made. Beautiful pottery traditions in western Norway ceased.
Life seems miserable.
Also, more gold was sacrificed to the gods.
People left the mountains
Per Sjögren works as a paleoecologist at the Tromsø University Museum. He specializes in looking for clues about life from the past.
It was during his work on a major research project that examined changes in the Norwegian mountain cultural landscape that Sjögren and colleagues came on the trail of the Fimbul winter in Norway.
In pollen samples taken from boggy soil in the mountains, they saw clear traces of a dramatic climate event 1500 years ago.
“We found the first traces of the Fimbul winter in northern Norway. Eventually we found the same thing in southern Norway,” Sjögren says.
“We see that the landscape has grown back. That people and animals must have left the cultural landscapes they had used in the mountains,” he says.
Who left Storesætra in Stryn?
Kari Loe Hjelle is professor of natural history at the University of Bergen. She is interested in what pollen and other evidence from the past can tell us about people's lives — at a time when there are no written sources about life in Norway.
Hjelle describes a diagram that was created by paleoecologists when they examined the amounts of grass and tree pollen deep in the soil at Storesætra in Stryn. This was a sæter, or summer farm, just below Jostedalsbreen, in an area that people have used since the Stone Age.
The diagram clearly shows how people used this landscape between year 0 and year 500. The pollen record shows lots of grass and smaller trees.
Then something happens in the 500s. Grass pollen decreases dramatically. The trees were coming back.
Coal dust is another indication that people are using a landscape. This also disappears from Storesætra in Stryn in the 500s.
Storesætra in Stryn (Sogn og Fjordane) as it looks today. People have been using this landscape ever since the Stone Age. The pollen samples were taken from the hill in the middle of the summer farm.
Massive devastation of farms in Norway
Frode Iversen is Professor of Archaeology at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo.
“From the 1960s, it has been known among archaeologists in Norway that there was a massive devastation of farms in Norway from the mid-500s. This is a known phenomenon, especially in Rogaland County,” he says.
But why were the farms ruined and abandoned?
It has been speculated that the Justinian plague that struck the world at that time also came all the way to Norway.
“There was a lot of attention to this among Norwegian archaeologists decades ago. Since then, we haven’t thought about it much, until it again became topical because of Bo Gräslund’s new theory on the Fimbul winter,” he says.
Frode Iversen is an archaeologist at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo, and is one of the researchers who has been most interested in the theory of the Fimbul winter in Norway. (Photo: UiO)
“We see a very sharp decline in activity in Norway in the 500s,” Iversen says.
Nearly 90 per cent fewer discoveries
Morten Vetrhus wrote his master’s thesis at the University of Bergen on what happened during the transition from the Migration Period to Merovingian Period — in other words, before and after about 550.
He reports a sharp decline in the number of sites where archaeologists found something interesting. The decline in discovery sites was as much as 70 per cent.
Even greater was the decline in the number of archaeological finds in Rogaland from the Migration Period to the Merovingian Period. This decline was 87 per cent.
This despite the fact that the Merovingian Period lasted a hundred years longer than the Migration Period. Even in a fertile area like Jæren, parts of the landscape was completely emptied of people.
“This is a very strong decline. What happened to these people? Why do we stop finding evidence of them?” Iversen asks.
Smaller farms abandoned
Climate or plague?
Iversen now wonders if it was the climate disaster alone that destroyed the population.
Or was it — as more and more scientists are tending to believe— a combination of climate and a serious epidemic?
The Justinian plague hit Southern Europe in the year 541.
There’s no evidence that it also reached all the way to the Nordic countries. But researchers who have opened graves have recently been able to establish that the plague came to Germany. That makes it not unlikely that it also hit Norway.
The bacterium from the 500s — Yersina pestis — is the same that hit Europe during the Black Death in the 1300s.
In the vast city of Constantinople, it is estimated that about 40 per cent of the inhabitants died during the Justinian plague in the years 541 and 542.
The Justinian plague in northern Norway?
One of the world's foremost research communities on plague is found today at the University of Oslo under the leadership of Professor Nils Christian Stenseth.
Researchers there have determined that the plague bacterium must have been imported into Europe time and again. They also see that climate has a lot to do with the development of plagues. As the climate became colder, the rats died. Then the fleas that carried the plague shifted to people.
"If we are going to find traces of plague on people from as far back as the 500s, my tip is that we investigate skeletons in northern Norway," Iversen said.
The climate is cooler in northern Norway and skeletons are better preserved. In addition, some bone remnants in northern Norway are found in calcareous shell sand.
Iversen warns that scientists will need a lot of luck to find plague bacteria in people who lived 1500 years ago.
The entire Norrland depopulated
To find more pieces of the puzzle surrounding the Fimbul winter, we now travel to Sweden.
In recent years, several researchers have taken an interest in what Swedish scientists now commonly call "the incident in 536".
Now that Swedish archaeologists know what to look for from this time period, they, like their Norwegian counterparts, they find evidence of the disaster.
Archaeologists see that a large number of Swedish farms were abandoned in the mid-500s. Large areas where animals had grazed are being repopulated by trees — just like in Norway.
The northern part of Sweden — Norrland — may have been completely depopulated.
Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist is both a historian and climate scientist at Stockholm University. He is particularly interested in the volcanic explosions he believes must have taken place in the years 536 and 540. Ljungqvist has recently published a popular science book on how people through history have been affected by the climate. (Photo: Private)
Half of Swedish farms abandoned
Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist is both a historian and climate scientist at Stockholm University.
“It is now clear from Swedish archaeological research that perhaps as much as 50 per cent of the population disappeared from Mälardalen, Öland and Gotland. Almost half of all buildings were abandoned,” he says.
Climate scientists believe there must have been a huge volcanic eruption in the year 536.
“It probably happened somewhere in the non-tropical part of the northern hemisphere. The outbreak caused large quantities of aerosols (tiny particles) to be sent high into the atmosphere,” he said.
This was followed by an even bigger volcanic disaster in the year 540.
“This must have happened somewhere near the Equator. Maybe it was El Chichón volcano in southern Mexico,” he said.
The tiny particles from the two volcanic eruptions remained in the atmosphere for several years, leading to strong cooling in the northern hemisphere. Ljungqvist points out that there are now a number of studies of annual rings in old trees that confirm this.
He points out that the cumulative effect of two huge volcanic eruptions in the years 536 and 540 was what made this cooling quite exceptional and very long lasting.
“Today we know that this is probably the most severe cooling the Earth has experienced in more than 2000 years,” says Ljungqvist.
Frost in trees in the middle of summer
It was so cold that frost formed inside trees in the middle of summer.
Traces of this have been found in Russia, among other places. It is very rare for trees to freeze internally during the summer.
“The cooling may have been 3-4 degrees on average in the summer of 536 and somewhat less the years that followed. About the same time, the cooling resumed in the year 540. It may not sound like much. But the cold was hardly spread evenly throughout the summer. Certain periods in the summer were probably extra cold, while other parts of the summer probably had normal temperatures,” Ljungqvist says.
Another issue was the low sunlight. Sunlight was unable to penetrate the ash layer in the atmosphere. Without sunlight, plants failed. People were not able to grow food. They couldn’t grow hay for their animals.
Ljungqvist notes that the cold summers after 536 in some places seem to have experienced heavy rainfall.
Grain matured, but rotted.
Then came the plague
There are no written sources from the Nordic countries from as early as the 500s.
In Constantinople, the historian Prokopios writes of a constant solar eclipse.
From Ireland there are depictions of famine.
From China there are written sources that speak of snow in the middle of summer.
Then — in the year 541 — the Justinian plague comes to Europe.
“In southern Europe we know this plague epidemic was as brutal as the Black Death 800 years later. There is a lot of evidence that the plague in the 500s also reached Northern Europe, although we do not have written sources that describe it,” says Ljungqvist.
In 2013, German scientists were able to confirm that three people buried in today's Germany were infected by the pest bacterium Yersina pestis during this period.
If the plague reached north of the Alps, Ljungqvist considers it likely that it also reached Scandinavia.
“Together, the dramatic cooling of the climate and the Justinian plague may have created a disaster for people that was even greater than the Black Death,” Ljungqvist thinks. He has published a popular science book in Sweden, Klimatet och männskan under 12000 år, (Climate and Man over 12,000 Years).
Ljungqvist also co-authored a research article in 2016 in the journal Nature Geoscience. Here the researchers used the name Late Antique Little Ice Age to describe the period from 536 to 660.
A dramatic transition
In Norway, the centuries before the year 550 are called the Migration Period. The time after 550 and up to the year 800 is called the Merovingian Period. Then comes the Viking Age.
The transition from the Migration Period to the Merovingian Period around the year 550 also marks the transition from the older Iron Age to the younger Iron Age.
The catastrophe thus occurred in the transition between the Migration Period and the Merovingian Period, and in the transition from older to younger Iron Age.
This is transition where researchers — as you probably already have understood —have suspected for some time that something dramatic must have happened.
Now we know what this dramatic happening was.
A typical Scandinavian gold braided bracteate with a figure of a horse and reverse swastika at the bottom. The runes on the bracteate say Alu. The bracteate is from the time around to the climate disaster. The swastika is an ancient symbol in many cultures, including in Scandinavia. This bracteate was found in Sweden.
The graves that disappeared
Here are some other indications from Norway of the disaster from 1500 years ago:
In Norway, the number of burial finds at the beginning of the Merovingian Period falls by at least 90 per cent, compared with the number of finds from the Migration Period. To repeat: This was the time before and after the disaster.
This change could certainly be due to new burial customs. But an equally likely cause is the combined effect of the volcanic eruptions in 536 and 540, and the Justinian plague.
In Denmark, archaeologist Morten Axboe found that large quantities of gold and other precious metal jewellery were sacrificed right after the climate shock.
Axboe's theory is that these sacrifices were actions of desperate people. They sought to mollify higher powers and asked them to bring the sun back into the sky.
A strangely quiet time
An article about the Merovingian Period (550-800) on Norgeshistorie.no is entitled “Hundre års tystnad,” which translates as “A hundred years of silence.”
Per Ditlof Fredriksen is an associate professor at the Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History at the University of Oslo and authored the article.
Fredriksen calls the first part of this historical period a strangely quiet time in Norway. Like Iversen at the Museum of Cultural History, he points out that from the years 550 to 650 there are very few archaeological finds in Norway.
It’s not just that people stop building houses and burying their dead.
It also looks like people are forgetting how to make important tools. Tools they definitely needed.
It is only beginning around the year 650 that archaeologists see that human life in Norway was once again beginning to return to normal. But then much of the technology was new. A lot of knowledge had obviously disappeared. For example, people started making iron in a whole new way.
In Rogaland and the surrounding areas, until the disaster 1500 years ago, there were many skilled goldsmiths.
Both they and their craft disappeared.
The same thing happened to the many talented potters who had lived in western Norway before the Merovingian Period, from Jæren in the south to Sogn in the north.
It would take another thousand years before equally fine pottery was made in Norway.
Which volcanoes were they?
The clearest indications that there were two different volcanic eruptions in succession that created the Fimbul winter are from ice cores obtained from inland ice sheets on Greenland.
Some researchers have suggested the Ilopango volcano in El Salvador as the cause of the first disaster in 536. Another alternative is Krakatau in Indonesia.
Instead, Ljungqvist thinks El Chichón in southern Mexico was the most likely cause, based on what researchers know today.
In 1982 it turned out that El Chichón is still a deadly volcano. An eruption at that time cost 2000 people their lives. Prior to this, the volcano had not erupted since 1360 and people were not prepared for the sleeping giant to wake up.
There’s little doubt that aerosols released by volcanoes into the atmosphere can affect the Earth's climate today.
The higher in the atmosphere the aerosols reach, the longer the effect will last. What is probably decisive is whether the aerosols reach the stratosphere, or altitudes over 10,000 metres — which is the altitude where most of the air traffic is.
Huge volcanic eruptions are not uncommon
The United Nations Climate Panel (IPCC) wrote in a report from 2013 on how climate change over the last 2000 years may have been affected by volcanoes. Much of the knowledge researchers today have about the effects of volcanic eruptions back in time comes from ice cores gleaned from Greenland and Antarctica.
The researchers behind the IPCC report found that there have only been two or three hundred years since the Viking Age without very large volcanic eruptions that have affected the climate significantly.
The fact that the whole of the last century — the 20th century — was without gigantic volcanic eruptions may have helped make this be something that few of us imagine could happen again.
But it will certainly happen again.
Giant volcanic eruptions that affect the climate over a long period are actually not very rare.
It’s common for the climate and temperature of the Earth to be affected for one to three years after a huge volcanic eruption, depending on the number of aerosols that reach far into the atmosphere.
If several such gigantic volcanic eruptions were to occur in succession — as they probably did in years 536 and 540 — the impact on the climate would be even greater.
If this happens again, there are a lot more people on Earth who will need food.
On the other hand, society is much better prepared for this kind of disaster. We can transport food and mostly everything else we need over long distances. The people who lived in cold Norway 1500 years ago couldn’t do this. They were completely dependent on the food they grew and the animals they raised themselves.
The year 1816 is also called "The Year Without Summer". The reason was the Indonesian volcano Tambora, which during an eruption spewed huge amounts of dust into the atmosphere. In Western Europe and eastern North America, this caused the sunlight to disappear, temperatures became colder and crops failed. The Nordic region was not hit as hard. (Photo: Jialiang Gao / Wikimedia Commons)
1816 was "The Year Without Summer"
The year 1816 has become known as "The Year Without Summer".
It was an unusually cold year in Western Europe and the eastern part of North America. There was also an unusual amount of rain. In the spring after — in 1817 —grain prices in parts of Europe doubled.
The main cause of the unusually cold summer of 1816 was the explosion of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia. But in the years before the Tambora eruption, there had been four other major volcanic eruptions, all of which had spewed a lot of dust into the atmosphere.
The natural disaster in 1816 was hardly of the same magnitude as the disaster of 536. It was nevertheless severe.
It is therefore worth noting that the consequences were not at all the same. Two hundred years ago, the world was becoming modern.
In 1816 there was extensive international trade. Ships could carry a lot of food. People in distress could go to America, and many left. Several countries had a kind of social welfare system in place that could help the very poor. National health care systems and most people had become much better at preventing plague epidemics.
If we are again struck by a disaster like the one that happened in the 500s, we would be much better equipped to face it.
A lot of scientific articles will be written about what happened. Many will write books. Millions will tweet or post on Facebook.
Many of us nevertheless still believe in myths.
But we are unlikely to ever experience a Fimbul winter again.
———
Probably half of Norway and Sweden’s population died. Researchers now know more and more about the catastrophic year of 536.
The Fenris wolf swallows the sun. The climate disaster that began the year 536 was surely the most dramatic cooling of the Earth that humans, animals and plants have experienced in the last two thousand years. It was likely due to two large volcanic explosions, which every few years sent huge amounts of fine dust high into the atmosphere. There was dust for several years. The sun disappeared. This became another story in the imagination and myths of men. (Drawing: Louis Moe)
Nancy Bazilchuk ENGLISH VERSION
https://sciencenorway.no/
Tuesday 24. december 2019 -
"First came the Fimbul winter that lasted three years. This was a warning of the coming of Ragnarok, when everything living on Earth came to an end. "
This is how the story of the long harsh winter, called the Fimbul winter in Norwegian, begins, both in Norse mythology and in the Finnish national work of epic poetry, the Kalevala.
But why are stories that warn of a frozen end-time found in Nordic mythologies?
In recent years, researchers in Norway and Sweden have found increasingly clear evidence of a disaster that struck the planet 1500 years ago.
The disaster must have hit Norwegians and Swedes extremely hard — as hard as the Black Death. The same may have happened in the Baltics, Poland and northern Germany.
The moss scientist’s theory
In 1910, the Swedish geographer and reseacher of moss Rutger Sernander first launched the theory that the Fimbul winter may have been a real event in the Nordic countries. His hypothesis was that this was due to a climate disaster between 2000 and 2500 years ago.
For a few years, people listened to Sernander and his ideas. Then came the doubt, because archaeologists couldn’t find traces of such an ancient disaster.
We now know however, that a climate disaster struck the world — and especially the Nordic countries — just 1500 years ago.
And we know that it may have been followed by another disaster. Which might have been just as big.
Tuesday 24. december 2019 -
"First came the Fimbul winter that lasted three years. This was a warning of the coming of Ragnarok, when everything living on Earth came to an end. "
This is how the story of the long harsh winter, called the Fimbul winter in Norwegian, begins, both in Norse mythology and in the Finnish national work of epic poetry, the Kalevala.
But why are stories that warn of a frozen end-time found in Nordic mythologies?
In recent years, researchers in Norway and Sweden have found increasingly clear evidence of a disaster that struck the planet 1500 years ago.
The disaster must have hit Norwegians and Swedes extremely hard — as hard as the Black Death. The same may have happened in the Baltics, Poland and northern Germany.
The moss scientist’s theory
In 1910, the Swedish geographer and reseacher of moss Rutger Sernander first launched the theory that the Fimbul winter may have been a real event in the Nordic countries. His hypothesis was that this was due to a climate disaster between 2000 and 2500 years ago.
For a few years, people listened to Sernander and his ideas. Then came the doubt, because archaeologists couldn’t find traces of such an ancient disaster.
We now know however, that a climate disaster struck the world — and especially the Nordic countries — just 1500 years ago.
And we know that it may have been followed by another disaster. Which might have been just as big.
NASA and a Swedish archaeologist
The new hunt for the Fimbul winter began with the US space agency NASA, in 1983.
“The winter called the Fimbul winter is coming. Snow flies from everywhere. There are strong, cold and sharp winds. No living thing enjoys the sun. There are three such winters — without summers in between,” Snorre writes in his book Edda. The Fimbul winter (fimbulvetr) was a warning that Ragnarok, the end of the world, was coming. Many have wondered if the myth of the Fimbul winter could be based on something that really happened. Now scientists know that this is the case.
(The picture of the Fimbul winter was drawn by Louis Moe in 1929.)
At this time, two NASA scientists, Richard Stothers and Michael Rampino, published a scientific overview of known volcanic eruptions back in time. Much of their work was based on ice cores taken from ancient inland glacier ice on Greenland.
Archaeologists read the article. They understood that something very dramatic may have happened in the year 536.
Central to the new hunt for the Fimbul winter was Bo Gräslund, now a retired professor of archaeology at Uppsala University in Sweden.
Gräslund was first to suggest that the Fimbul winter was a real event, and that it took place in the years after 536. He also pointed out that the 13th century Icelandic historian Snorre in his book Edda was not only concerned that it was very cold and the winters were snowy — Snorre was also concerned because there were no summers for several years in a row.
Bo Gräslund is professor emeritus in archaeology at Uppsala University in Sweden. He was the first to suggest that the Fimbul winter may have been a climate disaster in the 500s. (Image from YouTube)
At this time, two NASA scientists, Richard Stothers and Michael Rampino, published a scientific overview of known volcanic eruptions back in time. Much of their work was based on ice cores taken from ancient inland glacier ice on Greenland.
Archaeologists read the article. They understood that something very dramatic may have happened in the year 536.
Central to the new hunt for the Fimbul winter was Bo Gräslund, now a retired professor of archaeology at Uppsala University in Sweden.
Gräslund was first to suggest that the Fimbul winter was a real event, and that it took place in the years after 536. He also pointed out that the 13th century Icelandic historian Snorre in his book Edda was not only concerned that it was very cold and the winters were snowy — Snorre was also concerned because there were no summers for several years in a row.
Bo Gräslund is professor emeritus in archaeology at Uppsala University in Sweden. He was the first to suggest that the Fimbul winter may have been a climate disaster in the 500s. (Image from YouTube)
Several years with no summer
The Fimbul winter then, meant several years in succession without a summer — which would have consequences about which we can only speculate for people who lived in the far north 1500 years ago.
Gräslund was also the first to estimate that the population of Sweden was halved in the 500s.
In the early years, many did not believe Gräslund's hypothesis.
In 2007 he publishes the article “Fimbulvintern, Ragnarök och klimatkrisen år 536–537 e. Kr.” (Fimbulvintern, Ragnarök and the climate crisis in the year 536–537 AD) in the Swedish journal Saga och sed.
After that, researchers began their hunt for the Fimbul winter in earnest.
Natural scientists and archaeologists make discoveries
In recent years, many discoveries have been made that clearly suggest that Bo Gräslund is right.
In Norway, pollen has been found deep in several bogs, evidence of a dramatic event that clearly changed the cultural landscape for a long time afterwards.
Tree rings from old trees provide another important clue.
Now that archaeologists know what to look for, these scientists are also finding more and more clues in their material. Today, archaeologists see that something dramatic happened to the farmsteads in Norway and Sweden 1500 years ago.
People moved. Or they disappeared. There are almost no grave finds from this period. Fine jewellery was no longer made. Beautiful pottery traditions in western Norway ceased.
Life seems miserable.
Also, more gold was sacrificed to the gods.
People left the mountains
Per Sjögren works as a paleoecologist at the Tromsø University Museum. He specializes in looking for clues about life from the past.
It was during his work on a major research project that examined changes in the Norwegian mountain cultural landscape that Sjögren and colleagues came on the trail of the Fimbul winter in Norway.
In pollen samples taken from boggy soil in the mountains, they saw clear traces of a dramatic climate event 1500 years ago.
“We found the first traces of the Fimbul winter in northern Norway. Eventually we found the same thing in southern Norway,” Sjögren says.
“We see that the landscape has grown back. That people and animals must have left the cultural landscapes they had used in the mountains,” he says.
Who left Storesætra in Stryn?
Kari Loe Hjelle is professor of natural history at the University of Bergen. She is interested in what pollen and other evidence from the past can tell us about people's lives — at a time when there are no written sources about life in Norway.
Hjelle describes a diagram that was created by paleoecologists when they examined the amounts of grass and tree pollen deep in the soil at Storesætra in Stryn. This was a sæter, or summer farm, just below Jostedalsbreen, in an area that people have used since the Stone Age.
The diagram clearly shows how people used this landscape between year 0 and year 500. The pollen record shows lots of grass and smaller trees.
Then something happens in the 500s. Grass pollen decreases dramatically. The trees were coming back.
Coal dust is another indication that people are using a landscape. This also disappears from Storesætra in Stryn in the 500s.
Storesætra in Stryn (Sogn og Fjordane) as it looks today. People have been using this landscape ever since the Stone Age. The pollen samples were taken from the hill in the middle of the summer farm.
(Photo: Kari Hjelle)
Massive devastation of farms in Norway
Frode Iversen is Professor of Archaeology at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo.
“From the 1960s, it has been known among archaeologists in Norway that there was a massive devastation of farms in Norway from the mid-500s. This is a known phenomenon, especially in Rogaland County,” he says.
But why were the farms ruined and abandoned?
It has been speculated that the Justinian plague that struck the world at that time also came all the way to Norway.
“There was a lot of attention to this among Norwegian archaeologists decades ago. Since then, we haven’t thought about it much, until it again became topical because of Bo Gräslund’s new theory on the Fimbul winter,” he says.
Now Iversen and colleagues have summarized much of what they know about the Fimbul winter in Norway in some of the chapters in their book "The Agrarian Life of the North 2000 BC – AD 1000". It is available (in English) free of charge as a PDF book at Cappelen Damm here.
Frode Iversen is an archaeologist at the Museum of Cultural History in Oslo, and is one of the researchers who has been most interested in the theory of the Fimbul winter in Norway. (Photo: UiO)
“We see a very sharp decline in activity in Norway in the 500s,” Iversen says.
Nearly 90 per cent fewer discoveries
Morten Vetrhus wrote his master’s thesis at the University of Bergen on what happened during the transition from the Migration Period to Merovingian Period — in other words, before and after about 550.
He reports a sharp decline in the number of sites where archaeologists found something interesting. The decline in discovery sites was as much as 70 per cent.
Even greater was the decline in the number of archaeological finds in Rogaland from the Migration Period to the Merovingian Period. This decline was 87 per cent.
This despite the fact that the Merovingian Period lasted a hundred years longer than the Migration Period. Even in a fertile area like Jæren, parts of the landscape was completely emptied of people.
“This is a very strong decline. What happened to these people? Why do we stop finding evidence of them?” Iversen asks.
Smaller farms abandoned
The village of Landa in Forsand in Rogaland was continuously settled for more than 2,000 years — both during the Bronze Age and the Iron Age — right up to the time of the disaster in 536. Most people lived here during the Migration Period, just before people disappeared. The Bronze Age house in the picture dates from 1500 years before the disaster. But the building practices did not change much at this time.
(Photo: Hallvard Nygård / Wikimedia Commons)
Iversen believes a strategy people used to face the crisis was to abandon the small and least productive farms. Larger and more centrally located lands were instead divided into smaller production units.
A lack of labour made it difficult to maintain farm operations in Rogaland and likely in the rest of Norway at the levels it had been at before the disaster in the mid-500s.
Iversen also wonders if the mass death caused more land to be available for people who survived. This may explain why archaeologists find traces of agriculture in Norway in the latter part of the 500s that reflects more animal husbandry. This is something similar to what other historians believe happened after the Black Death around 1350.
There are also some examples of new power centres being established in Norway after the disaster.
Raknehaugen in Romerike — the largest burial mound in the Nordic countries — probably reflects this. There were fewer powerful people left in the country, but those who remained might have had greater control and were even more powerful than before the disaster. Archaeologists have found evidence of the same in Sweden.
Iversen believes a strategy people used to face the crisis was to abandon the small and least productive farms. Larger and more centrally located lands were instead divided into smaller production units.
A lack of labour made it difficult to maintain farm operations in Rogaland and likely in the rest of Norway at the levels it had been at before the disaster in the mid-500s.
Iversen also wonders if the mass death caused more land to be available for people who survived. This may explain why archaeologists find traces of agriculture in Norway in the latter part of the 500s that reflects more animal husbandry. This is something similar to what other historians believe happened after the Black Death around 1350.
There are also some examples of new power centres being established in Norway after the disaster.
Raknehaugen in Romerike — the largest burial mound in the Nordic countries — probably reflects this. There were fewer powerful people left in the country, but those who remained might have had greater control and were even more powerful than before the disaster. Archaeologists have found evidence of the same in Sweden.
Raknehaugen in Romerike is the largest burial mound in the Nordic region. Inside the mound were logs that were probably cut in the year 551. The white lines show the annual ring from the year 536. Notice how narrow the rings are that extend further out towards the outside of the tree after this date. The photo was taken by researcher H. Roll-Hansen in 1941. Iversen, PhD candidate Josh Bostic and several colleagues have started to study the timber from Raknehaugen again, this time with completely modern methods. They hope to establish what the temperatures were — week by week — in the year 536 and in subsequent years.
Iversen has no doubt that the disaster must also have had a major impact on social structures in Scandinavia.
His theory is that the disaster hit the upper and lower layers of society the hardest.
As a consequence, after the disaster, a "middle class" grew larger. And with this, a society where people were more equal than before.
The art of goldsmithing disappears
Ingunn Røstad, also a researcher at the Museum of Cultural History, has shown that the clothes and jewellery used by the Iron Age people in the 600s and 700s were of simpler quality than from before the early 500s.
“Fine gold and silver jewellery were less common,” says Iversen.
“The jewellery that was made became simpler. It almost looks ‘homemade’.”
Iversen has no doubt that the disaster must also have had a major impact on social structures in Scandinavia.
His theory is that the disaster hit the upper and lower layers of society the hardest.
As a consequence, after the disaster, a "middle class" grew larger. And with this, a society where people were more equal than before.
The art of goldsmithing disappears
Ingunn Røstad, also a researcher at the Museum of Cultural History, has shown that the clothes and jewellery used by the Iron Age people in the 600s and 700s were of simpler quality than from before the early 500s.
“Fine gold and silver jewellery were less common,” says Iversen.
“The jewellery that was made became simpler. It almost looks ‘homemade’.”
Climate or plague?
Iversen now wonders if it was the climate disaster alone that destroyed the population.
Or was it — as more and more scientists are tending to believe— a combination of climate and a serious epidemic?
The Justinian plague hit Southern Europe in the year 541.
There’s no evidence that it also reached all the way to the Nordic countries. But researchers who have opened graves have recently been able to establish that the plague came to Germany. That makes it not unlikely that it also hit Norway.
The bacterium from the 500s — Yersina pestis — is the same that hit Europe during the Black Death in the 1300s.
In the vast city of Constantinople, it is estimated that about 40 per cent of the inhabitants died during the Justinian plague in the years 541 and 542.
The Justinian plague in northern Norway?
One of the world's foremost research communities on plague is found today at the University of Oslo under the leadership of Professor Nils Christian Stenseth.
Researchers there have determined that the plague bacterium must have been imported into Europe time and again. They also see that climate has a lot to do with the development of plagues. As the climate became colder, the rats died. Then the fleas that carried the plague shifted to people.
"If we are going to find traces of plague on people from as far back as the 500s, my tip is that we investigate skeletons in northern Norway," Iversen said.
The climate is cooler in northern Norway and skeletons are better preserved. In addition, some bone remnants in northern Norway are found in calcareous shell sand.
Iversen warns that scientists will need a lot of luck to find plague bacteria in people who lived 1500 years ago.
The entire Norrland depopulated
To find more pieces of the puzzle surrounding the Fimbul winter, we now travel to Sweden.
In recent years, several researchers have taken an interest in what Swedish scientists now commonly call "the incident in 536".
Now that Swedish archaeologists know what to look for from this time period, they, like their Norwegian counterparts, they find evidence of the disaster.
Archaeologists see that a large number of Swedish farms were abandoned in the mid-500s. Large areas where animals had grazed are being repopulated by trees — just like in Norway.
The northern part of Sweden — Norrland — may have been completely depopulated.
Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist is both a historian and climate scientist at Stockholm University. He is particularly interested in the volcanic explosions he believes must have taken place in the years 536 and 540. Ljungqvist has recently published a popular science book on how people through history have been affected by the climate. (Photo: Private)
Half of Swedish farms abandoned
Fredrik Charpentier Ljungqvist is both a historian and climate scientist at Stockholm University.
“It is now clear from Swedish archaeological research that perhaps as much as 50 per cent of the population disappeared from Mälardalen, Öland and Gotland. Almost half of all buildings were abandoned,” he says.
Climate scientists believe there must have been a huge volcanic eruption in the year 536.
“It probably happened somewhere in the non-tropical part of the northern hemisphere. The outbreak caused large quantities of aerosols (tiny particles) to be sent high into the atmosphere,” he said.
This was followed by an even bigger volcanic disaster in the year 540.
“This must have happened somewhere near the Equator. Maybe it was El Chichón volcano in southern Mexico,” he said.
The tiny particles from the two volcanic eruptions remained in the atmosphere for several years, leading to strong cooling in the northern hemisphere. Ljungqvist points out that there are now a number of studies of annual rings in old trees that confirm this.
He points out that the cumulative effect of two huge volcanic eruptions in the years 536 and 540 was what made this cooling quite exceptional and very long lasting.
“Today we know that this is probably the most severe cooling the Earth has experienced in more than 2000 years,” says Ljungqvist.
Frost in trees in the middle of summer
It was so cold that frost formed inside trees in the middle of summer.
Traces of this have been found in Russia, among other places. It is very rare for trees to freeze internally during the summer.
“The cooling may have been 3-4 degrees on average in the summer of 536 and somewhat less the years that followed. About the same time, the cooling resumed in the year 540. It may not sound like much. But the cold was hardly spread evenly throughout the summer. Certain periods in the summer were probably extra cold, while other parts of the summer probably had normal temperatures,” Ljungqvist says.
Another issue was the low sunlight. Sunlight was unable to penetrate the ash layer in the atmosphere. Without sunlight, plants failed. People were not able to grow food. They couldn’t grow hay for their animals.
Ljungqvist notes that the cold summers after 536 in some places seem to have experienced heavy rainfall.
Grain matured, but rotted.
Then came the plague
There are no written sources from the Nordic countries from as early as the 500s.
But in Italy, historian Flavius Cassidorus in 536 reports a sky full of dark clouds and sunlight lasting just a few hours a day.
In Constantinople, the historian Prokopios writes of a constant solar eclipse.
From Ireland there are depictions of famine.
From China there are written sources that speak of snow in the middle of summer.
Then — in the year 541 — the Justinian plague comes to Europe.
“In southern Europe we know this plague epidemic was as brutal as the Black Death 800 years later. There is a lot of evidence that the plague in the 500s also reached Northern Europe, although we do not have written sources that describe it,” says Ljungqvist.
In 2013, German scientists were able to confirm that three people buried in today's Germany were infected by the pest bacterium Yersina pestis during this period.
If the plague reached north of the Alps, Ljungqvist considers it likely that it also reached Scandinavia.
“Together, the dramatic cooling of the climate and the Justinian plague may have created a disaster for people that was even greater than the Black Death,” Ljungqvist thinks. He has published a popular science book in Sweden, Klimatet och männskan under 12000 år, (Climate and Man over 12,000 Years).
Ljungqvist also co-authored a research article in 2016 in the journal Nature Geoscience. Here the researchers used the name Late Antique Little Ice Age to describe the period from 536 to 660.
A dramatic transition
In Norway, the centuries before the year 550 are called the Migration Period. The time after 550 and up to the year 800 is called the Merovingian Period. Then comes the Viking Age.
The transition from the Migration Period to the Merovingian Period around the year 550 also marks the transition from the older Iron Age to the younger Iron Age.
The catastrophe thus occurred in the transition between the Migration Period and the Merovingian Period, and in the transition from older to younger Iron Age.
This is transition where researchers — as you probably already have understood —have suspected for some time that something dramatic must have happened.
Now we know what this dramatic happening was.
A typical Scandinavian gold braided bracteate with a figure of a horse and reverse swastika at the bottom. The runes on the bracteate say Alu. The bracteate is from the time around to the climate disaster. The swastika is an ancient symbol in many cultures, including in Scandinavia. This bracteate was found in Sweden.
(Photo: Sigune / Wikimedia Commons)
The graves that disappeared
Here are some other indications from Norway of the disaster from 1500 years ago:
In Norway, the number of burial finds at the beginning of the Merovingian Period falls by at least 90 per cent, compared with the number of finds from the Migration Period. To repeat: This was the time before and after the disaster.
This change could certainly be due to new burial customs. But an equally likely cause is the combined effect of the volcanic eruptions in 536 and 540, and the Justinian plague.
In Denmark, archaeologist Morten Axboe found that large quantities of gold and other precious metal jewellery were sacrificed right after the climate shock.
Axboe's theory is that these sacrifices were actions of desperate people. They sought to mollify higher powers and asked them to bring the sun back into the sky.
A strangely quiet time
An article about the Merovingian Period (550-800) on Norgeshistorie.no is entitled “Hundre års tystnad,” which translates as “A hundred years of silence.”
Per Ditlof Fredriksen is an associate professor at the Department of Archaeology, Conservation and History at the University of Oslo and authored the article.
Fredriksen calls the first part of this historical period a strangely quiet time in Norway. Like Iversen at the Museum of Cultural History, he points out that from the years 550 to 650 there are very few archaeological finds in Norway.
It’s not just that people stop building houses and burying their dead.
It also looks like people are forgetting how to make important tools. Tools they definitely needed.
It is only beginning around the year 650 that archaeologists see that human life in Norway was once again beginning to return to normal. But then much of the technology was new. A lot of knowledge had obviously disappeared. For example, people started making iron in a whole new way.
In Rogaland and the surrounding areas, until the disaster 1500 years ago, there were many skilled goldsmiths.
Both they and their craft disappeared.
The same thing happened to the many talented potters who had lived in western Norway before the Merovingian Period, from Jæren in the south to Sogn in the north.
It would take another thousand years before equally fine pottery was made in Norway.
Which volcanoes were they?
The clearest indications that there were two different volcanic eruptions in succession that created the Fimbul winter are from ice cores obtained from inland ice sheets on Greenland.
Some researchers have suggested the Ilopango volcano in El Salvador as the cause of the first disaster in 536. Another alternative is Krakatau in Indonesia.
Instead, Ljungqvist thinks El Chichón in southern Mexico was the most likely cause, based on what researchers know today.
In 1982 it turned out that El Chichón is still a deadly volcano. An eruption at that time cost 2000 people their lives. Prior to this, the volcano had not erupted since 1360 and people were not prepared for the sleeping giant to wake up.
There’s little doubt that aerosols released by volcanoes into the atmosphere can affect the Earth's climate today.
The higher in the atmosphere the aerosols reach, the longer the effect will last. What is probably decisive is whether the aerosols reach the stratosphere, or altitudes over 10,000 metres — which is the altitude where most of the air traffic is.
Huge volcanic eruptions are not uncommon
The United Nations Climate Panel (IPCC) wrote in a report from 2013 on how climate change over the last 2000 years may have been affected by volcanoes. Much of the knowledge researchers today have about the effects of volcanic eruptions back in time comes from ice cores gleaned from Greenland and Antarctica.
The researchers behind the IPCC report found that there have only been two or three hundred years since the Viking Age without very large volcanic eruptions that have affected the climate significantly.
The fact that the whole of the last century — the 20th century — was without gigantic volcanic eruptions may have helped make this be something that few of us imagine could happen again.
But it will certainly happen again.
Giant volcanic eruptions that affect the climate over a long period are actually not very rare.
It’s common for the climate and temperature of the Earth to be affected for one to three years after a huge volcanic eruption, depending on the number of aerosols that reach far into the atmosphere.
If several such gigantic volcanic eruptions were to occur in succession — as they probably did in years 536 and 540 — the impact on the climate would be even greater.
If this happens again, there are a lot more people on Earth who will need food.
On the other hand, society is much better prepared for this kind of disaster. We can transport food and mostly everything else we need over long distances. The people who lived in cold Norway 1500 years ago couldn’t do this. They were completely dependent on the food they grew and the animals they raised themselves.
The year 1816 is also called "The Year Without Summer". The reason was the Indonesian volcano Tambora, which during an eruption spewed huge amounts of dust into the atmosphere. In Western Europe and eastern North America, this caused the sunlight to disappear, temperatures became colder and crops failed. The Nordic region was not hit as hard. (Photo: Jialiang Gao / Wikimedia Commons)
1816 was "The Year Without Summer"
The year 1816 has become known as "The Year Without Summer".
It was an unusually cold year in Western Europe and the eastern part of North America. There was also an unusual amount of rain. In the spring after — in 1817 —grain prices in parts of Europe doubled.
The main cause of the unusually cold summer of 1816 was the explosion of the Tambora volcano in Indonesia. But in the years before the Tambora eruption, there had been four other major volcanic eruptions, all of which had spewed a lot of dust into the atmosphere.
The natural disaster in 1816 was hardly of the same magnitude as the disaster of 536. It was nevertheless severe.
It is therefore worth noting that the consequences were not at all the same. Two hundred years ago, the world was becoming modern.
In 1816 there was extensive international trade. Ships could carry a lot of food. People in distress could go to America, and many left. Several countries had a kind of social welfare system in place that could help the very poor. National health care systems and most people had become much better at preventing plague epidemics.
If we are again struck by a disaster like the one that happened in the 500s, we would be much better equipped to face it.
A lot of scientific articles will be written about what happened. Many will write books. Millions will tweet or post on Facebook.
Many of us nevertheless still believe in myths.
But we are unlikely to ever experience a Fimbul winter again.
———
American politicians use the Nordic region as both a role model and a scare tactic
Different groups use the Nordic countries for different rhetorical purposes, one political scientist observes.
Bård Amundsen JOURNALIST
Siw Ellen Jakobsen JOURNALIST
Wednesday 04. november 2020 -
In the years under President Donald Trump, the Nordic countries have played a more visible role in American politics.
The Nordics are used as a role model — and as a scare tactic — because not everyone agrees that Norway and the Nordic countries allow people to fulfil their dreams.
Obama, Sanders and Trump
“The USA is no longer the country of the future,” states sociology professor Haldor Byrkjeflot from the University of Oslo (UiO).
This harsh reality has caused many Americans to search for alternatives. The search has led to the emergence of the Nordic region as one of the few shining lights in the world.
Former US presidential hopeful and Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who calls himself a "democratic socialist", has referred to Nordic solutions many, many times, citing virtues such as free higher education, parental leave and a health care system for all.
Barack Obama is also very fond of the Nordic countries. He has proposed that Americans consider programmes from the Nordic region as an alternative to a collapsed American dream.
Even Donald Trump has his use for the Nordics.
But not in the same way as Sanders and Obama. Among other things, Trump has used Sweden as an example of how wrong things can go with a country’s handling of the coronavirus. "Sweden is having a terrible time. Sweden is haunted,” he said in June.
Since then, things have gone even worse for Trump and the United States.
The Nordic region as a dream and a nightmare
Trump and his administration have used the Nordic region as a dream or a nightmare, depending on the situation and their need for different arguments, Byrkjeflot said during a meeting on the Nordic region's role in American politics, organized by the major research initiative UiO: Nordic.
Byrkjeflot says that Trump and his advisers probably probably perceived it as a threat when Bernie Sanders initiated a discussion in the United States on the successful Nordic model.
For Trump, this could have been dangerous for his re-election campaign, if it had turned out that the "socialist" Sanders was the Democrats' candidate. Trump and his supporters consequently invoked the very special American fear of socialism that grew out of the Cold War with the Soviet Union, and which is still a concern for many adult Americans.
In 2018, the Trump administration came out with its own anti-socialist report examining the disadvantages associated with policies similar to those in Norway and the Nordic countries. A chapter entitled "Socialism costs" says, among other things, that inhabitants of the USA have a 15 per cent higher standard of living compared with the inhabitants of the Nordic countries. This last statement has been soundly refuted by researchers at Statistics Norway (SSB).
Both Bernie Sanders and Barack Obama have been interested in the Nordic model.
Many now find socialism attractive
It appears that the strategy of promoting the Nordic region as scary hasn’t succeeded very well, says Byrkjeflot.
“That Bernie Sanders calls us socialists, not social democrats, is perhaps not unproblematic. But socialism is actually becoming increasingly popular among young people in the United States,” he said during the UiO:Nordic meeting.
Surveys among people under the age of 30 in the United States show that they actually perceive socialism as being as attractive as capitalism, according to a Gallup Poll survey conducted in late 2019.
The now 31-year-old "democratic socialist" Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez entered Congress in 2019 with a large majority from New York and as the youngest female representative in the House of Representatives ever. Over a short time, she has established herself as one of the most popular politicians in the United States.
The Nordic region as a progressive ideal
Hilmar Mjelde is a political scientist who studies American politics at the University of Bergen. He believes that left-leaning voters in United States now see the Nordic region as a progressive ideal.
Conservatives, on the other hand, have different ways of using the Nordic region as a scare tactic.
“Different groups use the Nordic countries for different rhetorical purposes,” Mjelde said. “But this is very much an elite discourse. The average American has no relationship whatsoever to the Nordic countries. They aren’t even able to find the Nordic countries on a map.”
Mjelde is also concerned that Americans don’t seem to understand social classes.
When Bernie Sanders didn’t succeed in his bid to become president, it was partly because a group like African Americans— who are the most socially and economically disadvantaged group in all of the United States —think of themselves more as an ethnic group, rather than as a social class.
Sceptical of centralize government
Mjelde also talked about Americans' baked-in scepticism of centralized government.
“The American political system is designed to spread power. This is a mainstay of the system. Consequently, it’s in the very backbone of Americans to be sceptical of anything that has to do with the state,” he said.
In that context, he said, it’s a huge paradox that Americans now seem to have such extreme trust in "the great leader".
"First there was a personality cult around Obama, and now there’s one surrounding Trump."
The United States was a society of equality
Kalle Moene is a social economist at the University of Oslo and is particularly concerned with the United States and the Nordic countries from the perspective of inequality.
He points out that 150 to 200 years ago, the United States was one of the most egalitarian countries in the world. At the same time, Europe was very class-based.
Class never affected how policies were organized in the United States. The United States also never developed a large Social Democratic party. As a result, there was never any pressure to establish the same kinds of welfare schemes that evolved in European countries.
The United States has now become one of the countries with the largest economic disparities in the Western world, according to the OECD.
Developed welfare schemes similar to Europe's
But developments in the United States could have gone differently.
“After the mid-1930s, with the exception of the war, the United States had something that looked a little like what had been developed in the Nordic region,” Moene said. “They had a fairly high percentage of workers who belonged to unions, between 30 and 40 per cent in many sectors. The wage differences were smaller than they had been in a long time,” he said.
At the same time, he said, the US expanded its welfare state schemes in a way that was similar to Europe.
But that all ground to a halt in the 1960s and 1970s.
Nordic model developed over time, not adopted whole cloth
Moene says that what some call the Nordic Model is not something that has been deliberately adopted.
Instead, he says, it is something that has evolved.
“There have been gradual reforms, and trial and error over long periods,” Moene said, adding that many Norwegian union leaders were once very inspired by unions in the United States. They actually travelled to the US to study them.
Could the United States become socialist?
Moene wonders whether the way the Nordic region is organized is perhaps most appropriate for small economies that are open and that compete on the world market.
“The United States is a large and mostly closed economy,” he said.
Perhaps the Nordic model was established over time because of the need to demonstrate competitiveness externally to the world while at the same time striving to promote socialist equality internally. That might have been the pressure that drove Nordic reforms, he said.
If that’s true, then it won’t be easy for other countries, such as the USA, to copy what has been achieved in the Nordic countries.
Moene believes it’s naive to think that one model of society can be exported from one country to another.
But countries can still learn from each other.
“An important lesson for the United States may be that small wage differences and collective insurance schemes can work well with a high degree of market orientation,” he said.
Translated by: Nancy Bazilchuk
Different groups use the Nordic countries for different rhetorical purposes, one political scientist observes.
Bård Amundsen JOURNALIST
Siw Ellen Jakobsen JOURNALIST
Wednesday 04. november 2020 -
In the years under President Donald Trump, the Nordic countries have played a more visible role in American politics.
The Nordics are used as a role model — and as a scare tactic — because not everyone agrees that Norway and the Nordic countries allow people to fulfil their dreams.
Obama, Sanders and Trump
“The USA is no longer the country of the future,” states sociology professor Haldor Byrkjeflot from the University of Oslo (UiO).
This harsh reality has caused many Americans to search for alternatives. The search has led to the emergence of the Nordic region as one of the few shining lights in the world.
Former US presidential hopeful and Vermont Senator Bernie Sanders, who calls himself a "democratic socialist", has referred to Nordic solutions many, many times, citing virtues such as free higher education, parental leave and a health care system for all.
Barack Obama is also very fond of the Nordic countries. He has proposed that Americans consider programmes from the Nordic region as an alternative to a collapsed American dream.
Even Donald Trump has his use for the Nordics.
But not in the same way as Sanders and Obama. Among other things, Trump has used Sweden as an example of how wrong things can go with a country’s handling of the coronavirus. "Sweden is having a terrible time. Sweden is haunted,” he said in June.
Since then, things have gone even worse for Trump and the United States.
The Nordic region as a dream and a nightmare
Trump and his administration have used the Nordic region as a dream or a nightmare, depending on the situation and their need for different arguments, Byrkjeflot said during a meeting on the Nordic region's role in American politics, organized by the major research initiative UiO: Nordic.
Byrkjeflot says that Trump and his advisers probably probably perceived it as a threat when Bernie Sanders initiated a discussion in the United States on the successful Nordic model.
For Trump, this could have been dangerous for his re-election campaign, if it had turned out that the "socialist" Sanders was the Democrats' candidate. Trump and his supporters consequently invoked the very special American fear of socialism that grew out of the Cold War with the Soviet Union, and which is still a concern for many adult Americans.
In 2018, the Trump administration came out with its own anti-socialist report examining the disadvantages associated with policies similar to those in Norway and the Nordic countries. A chapter entitled "Socialism costs" says, among other things, that inhabitants of the USA have a 15 per cent higher standard of living compared with the inhabitants of the Nordic countries. This last statement has been soundly refuted by researchers at Statistics Norway (SSB).
Both Bernie Sanders and Barack Obama have been interested in the Nordic model.
(Photo: Gary Cameron / Reuters / NTB)
Many now find socialism attractive
It appears that the strategy of promoting the Nordic region as scary hasn’t succeeded very well, says Byrkjeflot.
“That Bernie Sanders calls us socialists, not social democrats, is perhaps not unproblematic. But socialism is actually becoming increasingly popular among young people in the United States,” he said during the UiO:Nordic meeting.
Surveys among people under the age of 30 in the United States show that they actually perceive socialism as being as attractive as capitalism, according to a Gallup Poll survey conducted in late 2019.
The now 31-year-old "democratic socialist" Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez entered Congress in 2019 with a large majority from New York and as the youngest female representative in the House of Representatives ever. Over a short time, she has established herself as one of the most popular politicians in the United States.
The Nordic region as a progressive ideal
Hilmar Mjelde is a political scientist who studies American politics at the University of Bergen. He believes that left-leaning voters in United States now see the Nordic region as a progressive ideal.
Conservatives, on the other hand, have different ways of using the Nordic region as a scare tactic.
“Different groups use the Nordic countries for different rhetorical purposes,” Mjelde said. “But this is very much an elite discourse. The average American has no relationship whatsoever to the Nordic countries. They aren’t even able to find the Nordic countries on a map.”
Mjelde is also concerned that Americans don’t seem to understand social classes.
When Bernie Sanders didn’t succeed in his bid to become president, it was partly because a group like African Americans— who are the most socially and economically disadvantaged group in all of the United States —think of themselves more as an ethnic group, rather than as a social class.
Sceptical of centralize government
Mjelde also talked about Americans' baked-in scepticism of centralized government.
“The American political system is designed to spread power. This is a mainstay of the system. Consequently, it’s in the very backbone of Americans to be sceptical of anything that has to do with the state,” he said.
In that context, he said, it’s a huge paradox that Americans now seem to have such extreme trust in "the great leader".
"First there was a personality cult around Obama, and now there’s one surrounding Trump."
The United States was a society of equality
Kalle Moene is a social economist at the University of Oslo and is particularly concerned with the United States and the Nordic countries from the perspective of inequality.
He points out that 150 to 200 years ago, the United States was one of the most egalitarian countries in the world. At the same time, Europe was very class-based.
Class never affected how policies were organized in the United States. The United States also never developed a large Social Democratic party. As a result, there was never any pressure to establish the same kinds of welfare schemes that evolved in European countries.
The United States has now become one of the countries with the largest economic disparities in the Western world, according to the OECD.
Developed welfare schemes similar to Europe's
But developments in the United States could have gone differently.
“After the mid-1930s, with the exception of the war, the United States had something that looked a little like what had been developed in the Nordic region,” Moene said. “They had a fairly high percentage of workers who belonged to unions, between 30 and 40 per cent in many sectors. The wage differences were smaller than they had been in a long time,” he said.
At the same time, he said, the US expanded its welfare state schemes in a way that was similar to Europe.
But that all ground to a halt in the 1960s and 1970s.
Nordic model developed over time, not adopted whole cloth
Moene says that what some call the Nordic Model is not something that has been deliberately adopted.
Instead, he says, it is something that has evolved.
“There have been gradual reforms, and trial and error over long periods,” Moene said, adding that many Norwegian union leaders were once very inspired by unions in the United States. They actually travelled to the US to study them.
Could the United States become socialist?
Moene wonders whether the way the Nordic region is organized is perhaps most appropriate for small economies that are open and that compete on the world market.
“The United States is a large and mostly closed economy,” he said.
Perhaps the Nordic model was established over time because of the need to demonstrate competitiveness externally to the world while at the same time striving to promote socialist equality internally. That might have been the pressure that drove Nordic reforms, he said.
If that’s true, then it won’t be easy for other countries, such as the USA, to copy what has been achieved in the Nordic countries.
Moene believes it’s naive to think that one model of society can be exported from one country to another.
But countries can still learn from each other.
“An important lesson for the United States may be that small wage differences and collective insurance schemes can work well with a high degree of market orientation,” he said.
Translated by: Nancy Bazilchuk
NIETZSCHE'S CURSE
Mercury, bloodletting and animals were weapons in the fight against the shameful epidemic of the 18th century
The disease syphilis and the treatment used for it often had dramatic consequences for the patient. (Photo: St Bartholomew's Hospital Archives & Museum)
The disease syphilis and the treatment used for it often had dramatic consequences for the patient. (Photo: St Bartholomew's Hospital Archives & Museum)
Sexually transmitted diseases spread through Norway in the 1700s. But was sex their only means of transmission?
Siw Ellen Jakobsen
Was prostitution the cause?
There is no good reason why people should suddenly have started having more sex in the 18th century.
So why did the diseases spread in Norway right at this time, including into rural areas?
In countries like England, France and Germany, prostitution and brothels play an important role in the debate about how sexually transmitted diseases spread.
This was not the case in Norway, where prostitution is not specifically mentioned in the sources related to these diseases like it is on the continent, Holmberg says.
Sexual intercourse before and outside of marriage were considered crimes at the time.
“But even though sexual intercourse before and outside of marriage was forbidden, it doesn’t mean that it didn’t occur. We’ve found evidence of this kind of sexual activity in the form of lawsuits related to infidelity and adultery,” she says.
Susann Holmberg has studied the embarrassing diseases of the 18th century. (Photo: UiO)
Johanne Corina Bergkvist has explored vagrancy cases from 1790-1802 in depth for her master's degree.
“Drunkeness and noise were the reasons why some brothels were referred to in the sources as notorious houses,” she says.
They appear to be pubs where some young women lived. But prostitution wasn’t being prosecuted, so therefore these places were infrequently mentioned in the interrogations.
“We don’t see the term prostitution used in the sources. This makes it difficult to establish how many brothels there were, the number of women who were prostitutes and the conditions they lived in,” says Bergkvist.
Were the diseases transmitted in non-sexual ways?
One theory as to why the diseases spread is that they were not just sexually transmitted.
They could also have been transmitted by sharing eating utensils or by sharing a bed without having sex, Holmberg says.
We now know that "endemic syphilis," which is still found in poor areas in tropical regions today, causes a disease similar to sexually transmitted syphilis.
Even in the 1700s, a distinction was made between those who had been innocently infected and those who were guilty, the researcher says.
A large survey from 1743 is one of many sources Holmberg has used in her research.
The central administration, which was based in Copenhagen at the time, needed more information to understand this country of Norway in the far north that they were to govern.
A long list of questions was sent to all the priests and bishops in Norway.
Holmberg believes this is a good source as to which diseases were wreaking havoc at the time.
“Rade” disease perceived as an epidemic
Later, around 1770, people became very concerned about another disease in Norway.
The illness was called “rade” disease (radesyken), the Norwegian name for “the wicked disease” and it was considered an epidemic.
Those who became sick with the disease got deep sores all over their bodies. The result could be sunken noses and obstruction of the throat.
The disease was perceived by many as being sexually transmitted.
Later, in the 19th century, the disease was considered a form of syphilis. Today, researchers believe that they are different diseases.
Not many doctors available
Around 1750, only five official physicians in Norway and a corresponding number of private practitioners had been trained at the University of Copenhagen.
By the late 18th century, the number of university-educated doctors and surgeons was growing.
In the fight against rade disease and sexually transmitted diseases, 16 hospitals were established in Norway for these patients throughout the 18th century, according to Anne Kveim Lie.
She is a physician and received her doctorate on rade disease in 2008
Did mercury have an effect?
By today's medical perspective, little suggests that the 18th-century treatments would have had an effect, Lie believes.
“But patients continued to return to their practitioners, at least those who were locally known, so they must have found that the treatment worked. We see from the hospital records that numerous patients were discharged as healthy,” she says.
Might that have been because the disease was in a non-symptomatic phase? Or was it because small amounts of mercury actually do have an effect on some STDs? Lie believes it’s difficult to know.
“Mercury treatments – in various forms and doses – were in use until the 1920s in Norway,” she says.
Many missing a nose
In the 18th century, a Danish bishop registered that many patients lacked a nose.
That entry triggered an investigation. Doctors thought the reason was because quacks had wrongly treated patients with mercury.
A law against quackery was enacted in 1794, Holmberg says.
Folk healers could still apply to treat people within a geographically limited area, if they could prove their knowledge. But only a few of them, on the other hand, applied for such a license in Norway.
Many doctors in Holmberg’s sources point out that lots of folk healers were still practicing well into the 19th century.
“And the doctors themselves express that they meet a lot of scepticism from the local population, even though their numbers had grown,” she says.
Great shame
Great shame was associated with these diseases, so going to a stranger with such embarrassing and difficult problems was probably not easy.
Holmberg believes this is one of the reasons why wise-women and other folk healers were used for so long, and why the distrust of doctors was so great.
“Besides, if you think that your disorder comes from something supernatural, then you’d probably go to a person who has a lot of insight into these matters to get treatment,” she says.
Sex with innocents
Folk healers often turned to God when they treated patients.
One piece of advice Holmberg came across was to write a message addressed to God that would be placed on the patient's naked body. God would then remove the disease.
Another idea was that disease could be transmitted from a human to an animal, for example through food, such as bread, which contained the sweat of the sick person.
Holmberg came across a recipe for boiled urine, given to an animal that would then become the recipient of the disease. The urine or sweat would pull the disease away from the patient and into the animal.
She also found a lawsuit from the early 1800s in which a child was sexually abused to cleanse the adult man of illness.
Avoid stigmatizing infected patients
Lie believes that knowledge of past infectious diseases can teach us something about the current COVID-19 situation.
“COVID -19 is transmitted differently than STDs are. But for all infectious diseases, the authorities need to have the trust of the population to be able to prevent infection,” says Lie.
“If the disease means that the patients who get it are condemned by society, it makes it much more difficult to admit to being infected and ask to be tested.”
She believes we have to avoid enemy stereotypes and stigmatizing patients in order to fight an epidemic.
Translated by: Ingrid P. Nuse
———
Read the Norwegian version of this article on forskning.no
JOURNALIST
Monday 19. october 2020 - 13:03
“People at that time had a clear notion that immorality was the root of these diseases,” says Susann Holmberg.
She recently earned her doctorate from the University of Oslo, in which she takes a closer look at the epidemic of the time, then called venereal diseases.
Today we understand these primarily as the sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) syphilis and gonorrhoea.
Monday 19. october 2020 - 13:03
“People at that time had a clear notion that immorality was the root of these diseases,” says Susann Holmberg.
She recently earned her doctorate from the University of Oslo, in which she takes a closer look at the epidemic of the time, then called venereal diseases.
Today we understand these primarily as the sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) syphilis and gonorrhoea.
Was prostitution the cause?
There is no good reason why people should suddenly have started having more sex in the 18th century.
So why did the diseases spread in Norway right at this time, including into rural areas?
In countries like England, France and Germany, prostitution and brothels play an important role in the debate about how sexually transmitted diseases spread.
This was not the case in Norway, where prostitution is not specifically mentioned in the sources related to these diseases like it is on the continent, Holmberg says.
Sexual intercourse before and outside of marriage were considered crimes at the time.
“But even though sexual intercourse before and outside of marriage was forbidden, it doesn’t mean that it didn’t occur. We’ve found evidence of this kind of sexual activity in the form of lawsuits related to infidelity and adultery,” she says.
Susann Holmberg has studied the embarrassing diseases of the 18th century. (Photo: UiO)
Johanne Corina Bergkvist has explored vagrancy cases from 1790-1802 in depth for her master's degree.
“Drunkeness and noise were the reasons why some brothels were referred to in the sources as notorious houses,” she says.
They appear to be pubs where some young women lived. But prostitution wasn’t being prosecuted, so therefore these places were infrequently mentioned in the interrogations.
“We don’t see the term prostitution used in the sources. This makes it difficult to establish how many brothels there were, the number of women who were prostitutes and the conditions they lived in,” says Bergkvist.
Were the diseases transmitted in non-sexual ways?
One theory as to why the diseases spread is that they were not just sexually transmitted.
They could also have been transmitted by sharing eating utensils or by sharing a bed without having sex, Holmberg says.
We now know that "endemic syphilis," which is still found in poor areas in tropical regions today, causes a disease similar to sexually transmitted syphilis.
Even in the 1700s, a distinction was made between those who had been innocently infected and those who were guilty, the researcher says.
A large survey from 1743 is one of many sources Holmberg has used in her research.
The central administration, which was based in Copenhagen at the time, needed more information to understand this country of Norway in the far north that they were to govern.
A long list of questions was sent to all the priests and bishops in Norway.
Holmberg believes this is a good source as to which diseases were wreaking havoc at the time.
“Rade” disease perceived as an epidemic
Later, around 1770, people became very concerned about another disease in Norway.
The illness was called “rade” disease (radesyken), the Norwegian name for “the wicked disease” and it was considered an epidemic.
Those who became sick with the disease got deep sores all over their bodies. The result could be sunken noses and obstruction of the throat.
The disease was perceived by many as being sexually transmitted.
Later, in the 19th century, the disease was considered a form of syphilis. Today, researchers believe that they are different diseases.
Not many doctors available
Around 1750, only five official physicians in Norway and a corresponding number of private practitioners had been trained at the University of Copenhagen.
By the late 18th century, the number of university-educated doctors and surgeons was growing.
In the fight against rade disease and sexually transmitted diseases, 16 hospitals were established in Norway for these patients throughout the 18th century, according to Anne Kveim Lie.
She is a physician and received her doctorate on rade disease in 2008
.
Much of the treatment was similar
The vast majority of patients received treatment from people other than doctors and surgeons, including priests and pharmacists.
In addition, healers included countless wise-women and self-taught travelling "specialists."
But whether you received treatment from a university-educated doctor or just a folk healer, many elements of the treatment were the same, says Lie.
Mercury was the most prevalent method for treating sexually transmitted diseases. Bloodletting was another common method.
Lie believes there was still a quality difference between the practitioners.
“Educated doctors had learned about many different places on the body for bloodletting and employed several different doses of mercury, whereas folk healers would use the same method for everything.
Much of the treatment was similar
The vast majority of patients received treatment from people other than doctors and surgeons, including priests and pharmacists.
In addition, healers included countless wise-women and self-taught travelling "specialists."
But whether you received treatment from a university-educated doctor or just a folk healer, many elements of the treatment were the same, says Lie.
Mercury was the most prevalent method for treating sexually transmitted diseases. Bloodletting was another common method.
Lie believes there was still a quality difference between the practitioners.
“Educated doctors had learned about many different places on the body for bloodletting and employed several different doses of mercury, whereas folk healers would use the same method for everything.
Did mercury have an effect?
By today's medical perspective, little suggests that the 18th-century treatments would have had an effect, Lie believes.
“But patients continued to return to their practitioners, at least those who were locally known, so they must have found that the treatment worked. We see from the hospital records that numerous patients were discharged as healthy,” she says.
Might that have been because the disease was in a non-symptomatic phase? Or was it because small amounts of mercury actually do have an effect on some STDs? Lie believes it’s difficult to know.
“Mercury treatments – in various forms and doses – were in use until the 1920s in Norway,” she says.
Many missing a nose
In the 18th century, a Danish bishop registered that many patients lacked a nose.
That entry triggered an investigation. Doctors thought the reason was because quacks had wrongly treated patients with mercury.
A law against quackery was enacted in 1794, Holmberg says.
Folk healers could still apply to treat people within a geographically limited area, if they could prove their knowledge. But only a few of them, on the other hand, applied for such a license in Norway.
Many doctors in Holmberg’s sources point out that lots of folk healers were still practicing well into the 19th century.
“And the doctors themselves express that they meet a lot of scepticism from the local population, even though their numbers had grown,” she says.
Great shame
Great shame was associated with these diseases, so going to a stranger with such embarrassing and difficult problems was probably not easy.
Holmberg believes this is one of the reasons why wise-women and other folk healers were used for so long, and why the distrust of doctors was so great.
“Besides, if you think that your disorder comes from something supernatural, then you’d probably go to a person who has a lot of insight into these matters to get treatment,” she says.
Sex with innocents
Folk healers often turned to God when they treated patients.
One piece of advice Holmberg came across was to write a message addressed to God that would be placed on the patient's naked body. God would then remove the disease.
Another idea was that disease could be transmitted from a human to an animal, for example through food, such as bread, which contained the sweat of the sick person.
Holmberg came across a recipe for boiled urine, given to an animal that would then become the recipient of the disease. The urine or sweat would pull the disease away from the patient and into the animal.
She also found a lawsuit from the early 1800s in which a child was sexually abused to cleanse the adult man of illness.
Avoid stigmatizing infected patients
Lie believes that knowledge of past infectious diseases can teach us something about the current COVID-19 situation.
“COVID -19 is transmitted differently than STDs are. But for all infectious diseases, the authorities need to have the trust of the population to be able to prevent infection,” says Lie.
“If the disease means that the patients who get it are condemned by society, it makes it much more difficult to admit to being infected and ask to be tested.”
She believes we have to avoid enemy stereotypes and stigmatizing patients in order to fight an epidemic.
Translated by: Ingrid P. Nuse
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Read the Norwegian version of this article on forskning.no
Menstrual capitalism: A lot of people profit from your monthly menstruation
Products cannot solve all our period problems, warns menstruation researcher Camilla Mørk Røstvik. (Photo: Pixel-Shot / Shutterstock / NTB)
SHARE YOUR SCIENCE: Menstruation presents an endlessly renewed commercial opportunity for period-product manufacturers, who are finding new ways to infiltrate wider markets in an era when taboos are being chipped away. But issues remain that products can’t solve.
Thursday 08. october 2020 -
In recent years period activism has hit the global headlines, busting taboos, driving public policy, and prompting companies to create new products. In some countries, including the US, UK, Canada, India and Australia, menstrual equity – the right to equal access to menstrual products and reproductive education, often with a focus on financial issues such as removing the ‘tampon tax’ – has become big news.
However, activists, academics and indeed many people who experience a menstrual cycle are growing increasingly concerned about corporate influence.
While menstruation is a normal event, it has also, in the last 100 years, become a profitable one.
For monetary capital, the monthly occurrence of blood, especially for young people, presents numerous commercial options for cleaning it up, experimenting with hormonal birth control, and trying to make it, as one business recently put it, “cool”.
In recent years period activism has hit the global headlines, busting taboos, driving public policy, and prompting companies to create new products. In some countries, including the US, UK, Canada, India and Australia, menstrual equity – the right to equal access to menstrual products and reproductive education, often with a focus on financial issues such as removing the ‘tampon tax’ – has become big news.
However, activists, academics and indeed many people who experience a menstrual cycle are growing increasingly concerned about corporate influence.
While menstruation is a normal event, it has also, in the last 100 years, become a profitable one.
For monetary capital, the monthly occurrence of blood, especially for young people, presents numerous commercial options for cleaning it up, experimenting with hormonal birth control, and trying to make it, as one business recently put it, “cool”.
"The monthly occurence of blood presents numerous commercial options for cleaning it up, and making it cool", writes researcher Camilla Mørk Røstvik.
(Photo: Jo Hanely, Wellcome Collection)
Let’s talk about menstruation
New types of menstrual products, such as tampons, pads, cups, period pants, vitamins, hormones, teas and foods, and apps to track your cycle, are proliferating as entrepreneurs across the globe are shaking up the market.
A parallel increase is seen in the public interest in the topic. Menstruation is discussed in popular science books and podcasts. Popular culture increasingly depicts menstruation, like for instance the tv-shows ‘Orange is the New Black’, ‘Mad Men’ and more recently ‘I May Destroy You’. In my native country of Norway, the national broadcaster NRK this fall offers its young viewers a show simply called ‘menstruation’ (Mensen).
As images and descriptions of bleeding by artists and writers such as Jen Lewis, Rupi Kaur, and Chella Quint become more mainstream, products aimed at issues other than blood have followed. These include following different skincare routines depending on where you are in your cycle and ‘seed cycling’, which claims that eating specific types of seed before and after ovulation can balance hormones.
Menstruation is everywhere. But while this is mostly a good thing, there is reason for caution. The American lawyer Bridget Crawford, a professor at Pace University in New York, describes what she calls “menstrual capitalism” as:
“the marketing and selling of menstrual hygiene products by means of feminist messages that attempt to create a public-relations ‘halo effect’ for companies that are, at their core, commercial enterprises”.
Menstruating in the “right way”
For people who menstruate or experience contraceptive-induced withdrawal bleeding, commercial products have for decades been a large part of how to handle symptoms and menstrual blood in “the right way”.
In her book ‘Issues of Blood: The Politics of Menstruation’, feminist activist Sophie Laws describes what she calls “menstrual etiquette”. This is a system that means there is nothing to be gained by being noticeably menstruating.
It may perhaps be ok to buy several menstruation-related products, and go to a mensturation themed vernissage. But is it ok to bleed through your clothes? And do these cultural and commercial solutions help those who can barely move due to the monthly pain their menstruation causes them?
In March 2015, poet Rupi Kaur posted a photo of herself lying on a bed with blood on her trousers and on the sheet. The photo was removed by Instagram and created headlines all over the world. Kaur said she knew the image was provocative, but had not at all expected the furore that followed. Instagram apologized and said the image had been removed by mistake. (Screenshot from artists instagram account)
Historian of science Sharra Vostral argues that people who are menstruating must go through something akin to a “passing process”, where the goal is to always appear non-menstruating.
The promise that a tampon can solve all menstrual-cycle issues is seductive, but not true. This is apparent for instance through Vostrals research on Toxic Shock Syndrom, TSS.
TSS is a rare but serious condition due to toxic substances that can develop in tampons, and that in its most severe cases can lead to death. Today tampon users are warned against this, but it is less known that it was the company Procter & Gamble and their international competitors who created this situation by developing super absorbing tampons like the brand Rely in the 1980s.
TSS is still somehow present as a warning for the big companies, who today are profiting off a much more positive menstruation debate.
Tackling period poverty
Early on, the industry asserted that once a young consumer was hooked on a product, they would stay loyal. Now that entrepreneurs have entered this hitherto stagnant market, even multinational corporations realise that this might no longer be true.
One issue for many people around the world is the cost of sanitary products. Some governments are moving to mitigate this problem: Scotland, for example, is following in the footsteps of Kenya by introducing a policy to provide free products to combat period poverty. Policymakers in the Scottish government are procuring from many brands, including social enterprises, but multinational corporations also take their share of the investment.
In the United Kingdom, US corporation Procter & Gamble, which manufactures sanitary product brands Tampax and Always, and sanitary-bin provider PHS are on the government appointed Period Poverty Taskforce. This was formed in 2019 after activists succeeded in making politicians take notice of the problem of expensive sanitary products among poor people in the UK, especially children.
The inclusion of these companies in the taskforce has raised important questions: Why are the corporations that in part created period poverty through their pricing models now expected to solve the problem? And what will happen to the other issues that activists campaigned on, such as pain or stigma?
Nadya Okamoto founder of PERIOD, an American non-profit organization working for menstrual equity, speaks at the Capitol during a National Period Day rally in Washington. Activism to end period poverty and for period equity has made headlines all over the world in recent years. (Kevin Wolf/AP Images for Seventh Generation)
Sold lower-standard products to African countries
In the global south these same corporations have been donating products to women in developing countries for many years, often in collaboration with policymakers. This has been done to combat the assumed ‘backward’ thinking of people who use cloth or natural materials rather than more ‘modern’ disposable products. A goal is to get women to start using products at a young age, as this makes it more likely they will become loyal consumers.
In her book, The Managed Body, Professor Chris Bobel writes about the problems with such colonizing attitudes, and shows how products – both in the north and the south – rarely lead to the automatic freedom that the companies promise. There is a huge contrast between how big multinational corporations relate to consumers in different parts of the world, insinuating that western corporations are better developed to ‘modernise’ the culture of menstruation internationally.
Paradoxically, people in the West are increasingly turning towards reusables at the same time that folks in the global south are told to embrace disposable ‘feminine hygiene’.
But consumers are increasingly critical of this situation. Kenyans for instance, have boldly discussed the technological failure of Western products in the #MyAlwaysExperience scandal, when a number of people found that Always pads caused a rash. Those complaining on Twitter alleged that Procter & Gamble supplied African countries with lower-standard products than those in the West, which they suggested was the reason for the skin irritation. It turned out they were right – the products sold in African countries were of a lower quality than those sold in for instance Norway.
Also, a UK government report on period-related bullying, and the recent death of a Kenyan girl mocked for menstrual stains make it clear that corporate and governmental efforts to solve period shame through products have not worked.
Back to making and washing sanitary pads?
At the same time, 2018 saw the launch in the US of the reusable Tampax Cup, outfitted with disposable Tampax vaginal wipes. This launch followed the success of smaller companies like DivaCup, Mooncup and Lunette who brought the period cup back to the market in the 2010s. The period cup in itself is a much older 19th century invention.
Even if most people still use sanitary pads and tampons (or skip their menstruation due to hormonal contraceptives), the small increase in sales of alternative products was enough to make the big players like P&G give it a go.
Tampax applicator tampons are one of the oldest and most successful commercial menstrual brands in the world, due in part to their disposability and a structure that makes it unnecessary to touch blood. In contrast to this, the Tampax Cup was not a success.
Menstrual cups, in comparison, have a much longer and unsteady history, for the opposite reasons. They rely on a lot of contact with body and blood (something which may not be possible or ok for many), and they can also be expensive.
Consumers in the 1930s, when the first Tampax came on to the market, preferred disposable doses of menstrual protection to the cup’s hands-on insertion. However, the Tampax Cup exemplifies how the traditional industry is responding to the fact that the great-great-grandchildren of their first consumers are changing habits.
Our grandmothers made their own reusable sanitary pads and washed them in between uses. Today a new generation may not look upon this with aversion, they might find it an attractive option. If so, then disposable sanitary pads and tampons have lasted for around a century, as a typical yet not much discussed example of the 20th centuries throwaway culture.
The small increase in sales of reusable products like the menstrual cup during the past decade was enough for big players like Proctor & Gamble to try and launch their own cup product. (Foto: Olga Pink / Shutterstock / NTB Scanpix)
Going beyond the market
In comparison to what corporations offer, the lived experiences of people who bleed (available through #MyAlwaysExperience and #EndPeriodPoverty, for example), reveal a more complicated set of factors.
Consumers are growing restless, and demanding answers to more questions than “How can I keep my underwear clean?” Menstrual pain, heavy bleeding and endometriosis remain pressing issues for many. At the very least consumers would like to know what ingredients their products are actually made of.
The upside to recent corporate interest is that menstruation is being recognised as important, all over the world. The downside is that this recognition is still mostly driven by the wish to sell more products and, so far, seems to mostly benefit those who sell products. When menstruation now increasingly is a topic of public debate, it’s important to remind ourselves of who is talking, and who has something to profit from upholding ideas of menstruation etiquette.
In the UK, Kenya and the rest of the world, activists continue to fight against period poverty and other menstrual issues that cannot be solved by products. Better menstrual care means going beyond what the market alone can deliver.
———
Camilla Mørk Røstvik
RESEARCHER, UNIVERSITY OF LEEDS AND UNIVERSITY OF ST ANDREWS
This article is a reworked version of a text first published in the Wellcome Collection.
Read a Norwegian version of this article on forskning.no
The ScienceNorway Researchers' zone consists of opinions, blogs and popular science pieces written by researchers and scientists from or based in Norway.
This article is a reworked version of a text first published in the Wellcome Collection.
Read a Norwegian version of this article on forskning.no
The ScienceNorway Researchers' zone consists of opinions, blogs and popular science pieces written by researchers and scientists from or based in Norway.
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