Scientists Puzzled Because James Webb Is Seeing Stuff That Shouldn't Be There

Scientists have long thought early galaxies to be chaotic, misshapen messes — but new James Webb imagery proves that theory to be completely false.

Maggie Harrison -  Futurism

Over the past several weeks, NASA's ultra-powerful James Webb Space Telescope (JWST) has allowed humankind some unprecedented glimpses into the farthest reaches of our universe. And unsurprisingly, some of these dazzling new observations have raised more questions than they've answered.

For a long time, for instance, scientists believed the universe's earliest, oldest galaxies to be small, slightly chaotic, and misshapen systems. But according to the Washington Post, JWST-captured imagery has revealed those galaxies to be shockingly massive, not to mention balanced and well-formed — a finding that challenges, and will likely rewrite, long-held understandings about the origins of our universe.

"The models just don't predict this," Garth Illingworth, an astronomer at the University of California at Santa Cruz, told WaPo. "How do you do this in the universe at such an early time? How do you form so many stars so quickly?"
Move Over, Hubble

Related video: Latest James Webb Telescope Images Shed Light on the History of Stars

Duration 1:30   View on Watch

As WaPo explains, older images of the universe — as captured by the recently dethroned Hubble Space Telescope — seemingly confirmed the widespread belief that early galaxies were chaotic, haphazard places. The JWST, however, appears to show that those findings were an illusion based on that Hubble's limited capabilities.

"We thought the early universe was this chaotic place where there's all these clumps of star formation, and things are all a-jumble," the Space Telescope Science Institute's Dan Coe told WaPo, adding later that, before the JWST was launched into orbit, Hubble's imagery was "missing all the colder stars and the older stars. We were really only seeing the hot young ones."

Time Machine

While these findings have taken the scientific community by surprise, they're not at all a cause for alarm. Major technological advancements, in astronomy and beyond, have a long history of leading to periods of large-scale scientific discovery. Right now, it really feels like we're in one of those watershed moments, and the discoveries made today may well lay the foundation for future breakthroughs, even if they're decades down the line.

And really, discoveries like this mean that the JWST is doing exactly what scientists want it to do — it's revealing new, exciting stuff about our mind-bogglingly expansive universe, answering old questions and asking new ones along the way.

READ MORE: Webb telescope is already challenging what astronomers thought they knew [The Washington Post]

More on the James Webb Space Telescope: James Webb Catches a Glimpse of the Most Distant Star in the Universe

Trudeau reiterates there will be full review of funding for anti-racism program after Laith Marouf scandal

'It is absolutely unacceptable that federal dollars have gone to this organization that has demonstrated xenophobia, racism, and anti-Semitism,' he said

Author of the article: Ryan Tumilty
Publishing date:Aug 30, 2022 • 

Prime Minister Justin Trudeau speaks to the media in Kitchener, Ont. on Aug. 30, 2022. 

OTTAWA — Prime Minister Justin Trudeau said Tuesday that it is absolutely unacceptable anti-racism dollars went to an organization employing someone with clearly antisemitic views.

The Community Media Advocacy Centre (CMAC) received $133,000 from the government to do anti-racism training this spring. Diversity Minister Ahmed Hussen cut off the government’s funding immediately after the initial media reports that the senior consultant and founder of the group, Laith Marouf, had posted a series of antisemitic and anti-francophone message on social media.

At a media availability in Kitchener, Ont., Tuesday Trudeau said there was no justification for the government’s mistake.

“It is absolutely unacceptable that federal dollars have gone to this organization that has demonstrated xenophobia, racism, and antisemitism,” he said. “We cannot accept racism, hatred and anger, particularly not funded by the government and that’s why we took action quickly.”

Former Liberal MP Michael Levitt, who is now president and CEO of the Simon Wiesenthal Center, said he was disappointed more Liberal MPs weren’t denouncing this mistake and making it clear the government won’t defend antisemitism.

“Taking a stand against antisemitism should be a given and yet so few of my former Liberal colleagues have done so. This truly hurts. Jewish MPs shouldn’t be left to call this out alone,” he said on Twitter.

Liberal MP Anthony Housefather has said he disappointed in his own government for not moving more quickly, saying he had highlighted the issue to Hussen well before the news broke.

Trudeau said the government would be doing a complete review of any dollars the organization might be receiving, not just for this grant but also looking further to ensure no government money funds hate.

“We are absolutely in the process of doing a complete review to make sure that this organization is not getting any funding from the government. And we are making sure that we’re putting in place procedures that ensure that this never happens again.”

CMAC was given the $133,000 contract to lead consultations on an anti-racism strategy for the broadcasting sector.

In an email to supporters after the contract was cancelled, CMAC said it had suspended the work it was doing. The group said the coverage of the issue did not reflect its goals.

“After this week’s media coverage, CMAC is reminded of how online and mainstream media are powerful tools of white supremacy,” it said in an email to supporters. “CMAC is a not-for-profit corporation, engaging in research, relationship building, and learning to advocate for the rights of Indigenous, racialized and disability communities within the communications, broadcasting and media industries.

MANITOBA

Minimum wage increases on the way

A month from now, minimum wage earners will be better equipped to start closing the gap between their monthly earnings and their ever-increasing cost of living. As of October 1, minimum wage in Manitoba is set to rise from $11.95 to $13.50 per hour.

This increase will mean an approximate $250 per month in extra gross pay for fulltime employees. But it’s only the first in a series of rate hikes that the province plans to legislate over the next year.

On April 1, 2023, minimum wage will climb to $14.15 per hour. And by October 1, 2023, it will jump to approximately $15 per hour.

Premier Heather Stefanson made the announcement in mid-August, calling the phased-in approach as a means to narrow the divide between Manitoba’s minimum wage and that of every other province in the country.

“We know that to attract and retain new workers and immigrants in Manitoba, wages need to be competitive with other provinces,” she said at a news conference.


According to the Retail Council of Canada, even at $13.50 per hour Manitoba will only barely slide past Saskatchewan, who will be going to $13 per hour as of October 1. This will bump Manitoba from lowest spot to second-lowest in the country, at least until October 2024, when Saskatchewan plans to join Manitoba at the $15 mark.

Manitoba Chamber of Commerce Responds

Shortly after Stefanson’s announcement, the Manitoba Chamber of Commerce (MCC) acknowledged that there was indeed a need for a minimum wage increase due to rising cost pressures.

Even so, they said, there’s a lot to be considered.

“There needs to be a balance between having a competitive minimum wage and recognizing that employers faced serious economic challenges through the COVID-19 pandemic, and that they continue to deal with the financial aftermath of operating restrictions and labor shortages,” says Elisabeth Saftiuk, MCC Vice President of Policy and Government Relations.

As an advocate for Manitoba business owners, MCC encouraged the provincial government to consider a complete tax review in their efforts to help ease the burden for businesses, too.

“It is imperative that governments consider offsetting the cost to business,” reads an MCC press release. “Minimum wage is one part of the affordability discussion, but we cannot have that discussion without considering Manitoba’s taxation framework, which is [also] falling behind our provincial and territorial neighbors.”

According to the MCC, Manitobans are not only known for having the lowest minimum wage. At the same time, we boast the highest income tax rates compared to Ontario, Saskatchewan, Alberta, and British Columbia.

“An individual earning $50,000 in employment income in Manitoba would save over $1,000 in income taxes if they lived in Saskatchewan instead,” the statement reads. “To further break this down, Manitoba has the third lowest Basic Personal Amount (BPA) in Canada, behind only Nova Scotia and Newfoundland and Labrador.”

The BPA is the amount of taxable income a wage earner is allowed to earn before the government applies income taxes. Workers making a taxable income that’s less than the BPA pay no income tax. Workers receiving a higher taxable income than the BPA pay taxes on their gross taxable income less the BPA.

For 2022, Manitoba’s BPA is set at $10,145. For comparison, Saskatchewan’s BPA is $16,615. This means that employed residents of Saskatchewan are able to make almost $6,500 more in income before it becomes taxable.

Living Wage Arguments

As the MCC has entreated the province on behalf of business owners, the Manitoba office of the Centre for Policy Alternatives (CPA) has been building their own case, which would see even further increases to the minimum wage.

In late August, the CPA released a report advocating for low-earning Manitobans to be guaranteed a “living wage” instead of what the CPA deems the “poverty wage” that the province recently introduced.

“A poverty minimum wage is bad public policy, as families who work for low wages must sacrifice necessities to make ends meet, leading to chronic stress and long-term health issues,” the CPA report says.

The report infers that a living wage takes into consideration the amount of income that a family of four, with two full-time working adults, would need to bring home in order to cover their most basic needs of housing, transportation, and food. It should also be sufficient to allow for the healthy social, civic, and cultural development of the children.

“The living wage is designed so young adults are not discouraged from having children and older workers have some extra income as they age,” the report adds.

Based on current inflation rates, the report concludes that a minimum wage of $18.34 per hour is what’s needed for a Winnipeg wage earner to actually get by.

Related video: Winnipeg venue boosts minimum wage

Duration 2:04

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Tax Accountant Evaluates Dollars and Cents

Henry Friesen of Blue River Group is a chartered professional accountant and financial consultant in Niverville.

Friesen says it’s difficult for the average person to understand just how a wage increase will affect them until income tax time comes around.

Canada, he says, has tax laws that are quite favourable for those earning very low incomes. The federal government provides numerous tax credits for low-income earners, such as rent assistance and financial relief on the cost of pharmaceuticals, to name only a few.

The Canada Workers Benefit (CWB) is a refundable tax credit specifically designed to help individuals and families who are working and earning a low income.

Considering the CWB alone, and no further tax credits that a person may be eligible for, Friesen says that the worker making $11.95 per hour today would be eligible for a federal tax reduction of $1,124 at the end of the year. In 2023, when the minimum wage reaches $15 per hour, that same worker’s CWB credit will drop to $177.

Add to this a reduction in all the other tax credits that a lower income person may be eligible for, and it’s clear to him who will come out the winner in this situation.

“The real winner here is the federal government,” says Friesen. “We have a lot of credits for poor people that are reduced as their income increases… I call that a tax, in a way.”

The bottom line, Friesen says, is that at $15 per hour most of the CWB will be lost to these employees. Because of that, $15 per hour will actually come closer to $13.35 an hour when all is said and done.

Closing the Wage Gap

Pasquale Rocchio of Niverville is a healthcare aide with the Winnipeg Regional Health Authority. For the most part, Rocchio says, the $22 per hour he makes with his level of training isn’t out of line. But he sees big problems with how the significant rate hikes will affect him if businesses are expected to bear this cost alone.

“Costs of everything will go up, making it more difficult for everyone as a whole,” he says. “Those… [who are] making a fair wage presently will be forced to have increased costs that won’t be reflected [through] wage increases for ourselves.’

Essentially, he says, the new rates may look good to low-income earners now, but once they drive up the cost of living even further no one will truly benefit.

As well, he suggests, this political manoeuvre may in fact encourage people to take a drop in wage.

“I’ve seen many workers leave my field due to stress, overwork, and other similar issues as of late,” Rocchio adds. “A drastically [reduced] wage gap will make many more people contemplate leaving for jobs with less responsibility [even though it means] a small wage loss. And honestly, it makes me question my worth in my field as well.”

At minimum, Rocchio would love to see the provincial government work towards fairness at every wage level. Prior to the pandemic, Rocchio says, the Pallister government forced a merging of unions for all lower-tiered healthcare workers such as himself.

Since that time, workers’ wages have been frozen and negotiations delayed. The WRHA, Rocchio says, has been without a contract since April 2018.

Restauranteurs Weigh In

The Citizen reached out to a number of local restauranteurs who rely heavily on minimum wage workers.

Niverville Chicken Chef owner Laura Mulvena and Niverville DQ owner Nikki Hagidiakow agree that they are glad to see their hard-working employees earn more income.

“We want [our employees] to be living a good life,” Hagidiakow says. “My heart feels happy for them because they all deserve as much as they can get.”

For Hagidiakow, though, about 50 percent of her employees earn more than minimum wage. To keep things equitable for all of her employees, she says she feels the need to raise everyone’s wage in order to maintain the wage gap between new trainees, trained employees, and managers. So while the government’s legislation was intended to address only those at the bottom of the pay scale, in many businesses like hers it will have a far more far-reaching effect.

“Like any business, there is only so much you can pay someone to ensure your business continues to operate,” explains Mulvena. “There is little to no room for error operating a restaurant right now. With the uncontrollable food costs, and now this, it will be very tough for businesses in the next few years as we are all still trying to recover from the last two years.”

Both Niverville restaurant owners agree that government assistance for small businesses would be greatly appreciated.

Hagidiakow says, for her business, it would be as simple as making the Canada Summer Jobs grant more accessible.

The Canada Summer Job grant is a federal government initiative which assists small businesses by providing wage subsidies during the summer months.

Unfortunately, Hagidiakow says the grant is fairly restrictive, requiring her to ensure that her employees work at least 30 hours per week. None of her young staff were prepared to put in the hours or give up their evenings and weekends to make the grant work.

“I think that [covering the cost of a minimum wage increase] should be a combined effort,” Hagidiakow says. “The government does have to contribute and make things like getting grants a little easier for small business. Lessening the burden somewhere would really be helpful.”

As for Mulvena, she’s also among many business owners who have really struggled to find enough employees as of late. And she’s not as convinced as Premier Stefanson that paying higher wages will change that.

“I feel a lot of people have gone away from wanting to work in this industry over the past few years, since COVID,” Mulvena concludes.

At the end of the day, Friesen agrees that businesses will suffer not just the costs of the increased hourly wages. The higher wage also impacts the annual cost of statutory holidays, vacation pay, workers compensation benefits, and the business owner’s portion of Employment Income and Canada Pension Plan for each employee.

Brenda Sawatzky, Local Journalism Initiative Reporter, The Niverville Citizen

How Corals Protect Themselves Against Climate Change

Alice Amelia Thomas, Zenger News - 
Coral reefs are under threat from coral bleaching, which eventually leads to starvation. Global warming can disrupt the algae on the coral, which give it its vivid colors, leaving it white, fragile, and more likely to starve.

Now scientists have revealed how a special internal cooling system is saving stony corals–or Scleractinia–from environmental stress.

A study, led by the Alfred Wegener Institute (AWI) and the Max Planck Institute for Marine Microbiology in Bremerhaven, Germany, had its findings published in the journal Current Biology on August 23.

Zenger News obtained a statement from AWI that explains that stony corals make use of cilia—tiny, hair-like projections on the surfaces of their cells that influence "flow conditions" and protect the creatures from dangerous concentrations of oxygen.

While oxygen is vital for most animals and plants, too much of it can be harmful to corals, especially in warm water. Most coral reefs are made up of hundreds to thousands of tiny organisms known as polyps that have a symbiotic relationship with a group of algae that is provided with shelter in exchange for energy-rich sugars.


A general view of a school of fish and a sea fan in a healthy coral reef off the coast of Isla Mujeres, Mexico on September 26, 2018. Scientists from the Alfred Wegener Institute in Germany found that stony corals make use of tiny, hair-like projections on the surfaces of their cells that protect the creatures from dangerous concentrations of oxygen. Getty Images/Donald Miralle© Getty Images/Donald Miralle

These sugars are produced from water and carbon dioxide through the use of sunlight in a process known as photosynthesis. This process becomes problematic when temperatures are too high, which causes the algae to release dangerous substances, instead of supplying the polyps with energy.

The polyps then "get rid of their roommates" by throwing them out, which causes the reefs to lose their color and, in most cases, die.


A soft coral lies amid a carpet of various coral species at 45 metres depth on July 14, 2022, in Eilat, Israel. Most coral reefs are made up of hundreds to thousands of tiny organisms known as polyps that have a symbiotic relationship with a group of algae that is provided with shelter in exchange for energy-rich sugars. Getty Images/Lukasz Larsson Warzecha© Getty Images/Lukasz Larsson Warzecha

However, Dr. Cesar O. Pacherres, of the University of Copenhagen and one of the study's authors, explained that this does not always occur. He stated: "Not all corals on a reef fall victim to this."

To figure out why the team studied the coexistence of the hard coral creatures with a group of algae under a magnifying glass. By following the trail of oxygen, the scientists discovered it is actively distributed to areas where it is needed by the cilia.

Co-author Dr. Soeren Ahmerkamp added: "The trick is that the cilia on the surface of the coral create small vortices through coordinated beating."

Produced in association with SWNS.

Corals have developed a sophisticated internal fan system to protect themselves from climate change, a study has revealed.
Duration 1:44
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Germany’s €9 train tickets scheme ‘saved 1.8m tons of CO2 emissions’

Kate Connolly in Berlin - 

Germany’s three-month experiment with €9 tickets for a month’s unlimited travel on regional train networks, trams and buses saved about 1.8m tons of CO2 emissions, it has been claimed.


Photograph: Lisi Niesner/Reuters© Provided by The Guardian

Since its introduction on 1 June to cut fuel consumption and relieve a cost of living crisis, about 52m tickets have been sold, a fifth of these to people who did not ordinarily use public transport. The scheme is due to end on Wednesday.

The Association of German Transport Companies (VDV), which carried out the research, said the number of people who switched from cars to public transport as a result of the €9 ticket was behind the saving in emissions.

“The popularity of the €9 tickets had been unabated and the positive effect on it in tackling climate change is verifiable,” the VDV said. It said the emissions saved were equivalent to the powering of 350,000 homes, and a similar drop would be seen over the period of a year if Germany introduced a speed limit on its motorways. A typical passenger vehicle emits about 4.6 tons of carbon a year.

Olaf Scholz, the chancellor, who has come under fire for what some have interpreted as a nonchalant attitude towards Germany’s fuel price surge and steep rise in the cost of living in recent months, has lapped up praise for the scheme, calling the €9 ticket “our best idea yet”.

The scheme is also believed to have helped keep inflation, currently at about 8%, slightly lower than it otherwise would have been.

Not only did passengers praise the cheapness of the scheme, they revelled in its simplicity, as it cut through swathes of complication ranging from myriad transport zones to ticket categories that differ greatly from region to region.

Just over 37% of people who bought the ticket used it to get to work, 50% used it for everyday journeys such as to go shopping or visit the doctor, 40% used it to visit people, and 33% used it for day trips.

“I’ve travelled from Bavaria in the south to Rostock in the north and seen places I might never otherwise have bothered to visit,” Ronald Schenck, 80, told a regional broadcaster. “It’s saved me a fortune and I’ve had a lot of fun.”

The government and regional administrations are under huge pressure to continue the ticket in some form. The expectation is that any replacement would be priced at least six times higher, but surveys show enthusiasm for such a scheme is high.

According to Germany’s federal environment agency, the environmental damage resulting from one ton of CO2 emissions is worth about €180. This calculation will be used as an argument as to why the government should continue to subsidise a cheap public transport scheme in future, campaigners have said, after some officials said it was too expensive to continue it at a time of soaring living costs.

But critics have cited overcrowded trains, and passengers often not being able to bring bikes onboard, as reasons not to repeat the scheme. There are also concerns that if cheap tickets continue there will be less money available to boost transport networks, which are particularly poor in rural areas, with interconnectivity between independent services sometimes non-existent. Ticket sales in rural areas were the lowest, which it is thought owed to the poor availability of public transport there.

VDV carried out about 6,000 interviews a week – in total, about 78,000 – with passengers across the country, in conjunction with the national rail carrier Deutsche Bahn and the marketing research organisations Forsa and RC Research.

Kids discover "very rare" pearl inside clam in Maryland river

Emily Mae Czachor - Yesterday 

A group of middle schoolers made a surprising discovery while "enjoying the outdoors" at river in northern Maryland over the weekend. The kids were exploring Winters Run, a 14-mile river in Harford County, when they opened a clam and found a pearl inside, the Maryland Department of Natural Resources said on Sunday.


GettyImages-53062898.jpg© Getty Images/iStockphoto

Corbicula clams, like the one seen in Winters Run, are part of an invasive species that does not originate in Maryland but has been found there before. The mollusks are also called Asian clams or golden clams, and can live "on the muddy or sandy bottoms" of lakes and streams, according to the Maryland State Archives.

"Like all clams, it has the capacity to produce pearls," the department of natural resources wrote in posts announcing the kids' "cool find" on social media. "This is obviously very rare, so these kids got lucky!"

Native to Asia, Africa and Australia, Corbicula clams were initially seen in the U.S. in the 1930s, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The clams were found in Washington state at the time, and the department said they may have first arrived as imported food. Today, their presence is "widespread" throughout the country, and they can reproduce in large quantities that have been known to clog pipes and waterways. The clams typically have an outer shell that is yellow-green in color with white spots, and an inner shell that is purple.

NASA Engineers Have Figured Out Why Voyager 1 Was Sending Garbled Data

An illustration of Voyager 1 in space.© Illustration: NASA/JPL-Caltech

Earlier this year, the Voyager 1 spacecraft—over 14 billion miles from Earth—started sending NASA some wacky data. Now, engineers with the space agency have identified and solved the issue, and no, it wasn’t aliens.

The strange data was coming from Voyager 1’s attitude articulation and control system, which is responsible for maintaining the spacecraft’s orientation as it hurtles through interstellar space at about 38,000 miles per hour.

The garbled telemetry data meant that Voyager 1 was communicating information about its location and orientation that didn’t match up with the possible true location and orientation of the spacecraft. Otherwise, the probe was behaving normally, as was its partner-in-crime, Voyager 2. Both spacecraft launched in the summer of 1977, and Voyager 1 is the farthest human-made object in the universe.

“The spacecraft are both almost 45 years old, which is far beyond what the mission planners anticipated. We’re also in interstellar space – a high-radiation environment that no spacecraft have flown in before,” said Suzanne Dodd, Voyager’s project manager, when the issue first emerged.

Related video: Journey through space with NASA's Voyager

Duration 1:14

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“A mystery like this is sort of par for the course at this stage of the Voyager mission,” Dodd added.

Now, NASA engineers have realized why the attitude articulation and control system was sending out gibberish data. The system began sending the telemetry through a faulty computer aboard Voyager 1, and the computer corrupted the information before it could be read out on Earth.

The Voyager 1 team simply had the spacecraft start sending data to the right computer, correcting the problem. They’re not sure why the system began sending the telemetry into the faulty computer to begin with.

“We’re happy to have the telemetry back,” Dodd said in a NASA JPL release. “We’ll do a full memory readout of the AACS and look at everything it’s been doing. That will help us try to diagnose the problem that caused the telemetry issue in the first place.”

The good news is that the faulty computer doesn’t seem to be going HAL 9000 on Voyager 1; the space probe is otherwise in good health. On September 5, the mission will celebrate its 45th year, a milestone achieved by Voyager 2 on August 20.

Since the telemetry issue was first made public, Voyager 1 has traveled another 100,000,000 miles. It’s a small, technical fix for humans, but one that ensures we can keep track of the intrepid space probe as it continues its extraordinary journey into deep space.

A LIVING WAGE

California's senate just passed a 'fast food council' law that could force McDonald's, Starbucks, and other chains to raise wages up to $22 an hour

mmeisenzahl@businessinsider.com (Mary Meisenzahl) - 

Photo by Mario Tama/Getty Images© Provided by Business Insider
California's state senate just passed a bill that would totally change how fast food is regulated in the state.
The bill still has to be signed by California Gov. Newsom.
Labor advocates say the bill will give workers a voice, while opponents say it could raise prices.

The California state senate just passed a bill that could completely change how the fast food industry is regulated in the state.

If signed by Governor Gavin Newsom, AB 257, known as the FAST Recovery Act, will create a 10-member council of workers, company representatives, and government officials to set pay and safety standards across the state. The council would have the power to increase industry minimum wage to $22 next year, with jurisdiction over chains with more than 100 locations, including Starbucks, Chipotle, McDonald's, and others.

"We know the systemic issues workers in this industry face, and the only way to address them is to give cooks and cashiers a real seat at the table with their employers," president of the Service Employees International Union (SEIU) California State Council David Huerta said in a statement.

Restaurant owners, franchisees, and right-wing politicians voiced opposition to the bill, citing fears that it could raise costs for consumers.

"At the end of the day, it's going to drive up the cost of the products that they serve," state senator and Republican nominee for governor Brian Dahle told the AP. International Franchise Association president Matthew Haller said the bill raised a "fire alarm" to restaurant owners in other states about the potential for similar measures elsewhere.

Politicians on both sides of the aisle noted that the legislation could be replicated in other states.

The fast food bill passed during a unionization wave in the quick service industry, which has been notoriously difficult to organize. Over 200 Starbucks locations across the US have won union elections since December 2021, and Chipotle workers in Michigan just won a vote to form the chain's first union.

Our Teeth Come From an Ancient Sea Predator: Study

Simona Kitanovska, Zenger News - 

All teeth evolved from a single ancient sea predator, according to a new study. The study explains how certain species evolved to grow teeth by pinpointing their likely origin in an armored ray that swam the oceans 100 million years ago.

They evolved from jagged spikes along the snout of the primitive sea predator named Ischyrhiza mira. Known as rostral denticles, they helped the beast forage and fight off bigger fish. The finding is based on an analysis of fossils.

The study was published in the peer-reviewed Journal of Anatomy in its September issue, under the title Complex enameloid microstructure of Ischyrhiza mira rostral denticles. The study was authored by Todd D. Cook, Jack Prothero, Michael Brudy, and Jerome A. Magraw.


A rostral denticle of Ischyrhiza mira, a species belonging to an extinct group of sawfishes that lived in North American waters during the late Cretaceous period, around 100 to 65 million years ago, pictured in an undated photo. Teeth likely originated in an armored ray that swam the oceans 100 million years ago, according to new research, carried out by a scientific team at Penn State University in the U.S. 

SWNS/ Zenger/Jon Mills

The finding backs the "outside-in" idea that states that scales migrated into the mouths of ancient vertebrates and became adapted for eating. The alternative "inside out" theory suggests teeth developed independently within the oral cavity—and ultimately mounted onto the jaws.

Lead author Professor Todd Cook, a paleontologist at Penn State University in the U.S., explained: "Rostral denticles are believed to be modified scales because of their location on the elongated snout. They have an external morphology and developmental pattern that is similar to scales."

They are made of enamel-like tissue. Human teeth are composed of multiple layers of hard enamel, dentin and cementum, and softer pulp. Just like with scales, for a new rostral denticle to form, an old one must first fall off and make a space available.

Cook said: "Yet, very little was known about the organization of the tissues that make up rostral denticles, particularly the hard outermost layer known as enameloid. Given that rostral denticles are likely specialized body scales, we hypothesized the enameloid of rostral denticles would exhibit a similar structure to the enameloid of body scales, which have simple microcrystal organization."

The origins of teeth have been debated for centuries. Cook and colleagues believe they have settled it—serendipitously. Ischyrhiza mira had a large mouth and nose, and closely resembled a modern-day sawfish.

It reached up to eight feet long and belonged to an extinct group wiped out by the asteroid strike that killed off the dinosaurs. Remains have been found all over the world–from the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to Uzbekistan, Japan, Nigeria and South America.

The researchers were studying the tissue of rostral denticles when Cook noted sawfishes like Ischyrhiza mira belong to the same group as skates and rays—and are closely related to sharks. They examined specimens that had previously been recovered from a rock formation in New Jersey.

To examine the internal microstructure of the fossil rostral denticles, they sliced the samples across the width and length. Next, they used a scanning electron microscope to study the histology—or microscopic anatomy.

Cook said: "Surprisingly, Ischyrhiza mira's rostral denticle enameloid was anything but simple. It was considerably more complex than the enameloid of body scales. In fact, the overall organization of the enameloid in this ancient sawfish resembled that of modern shark tooth enameloid, which has been well characterized."

Both Ischyrhiza mira rostral denticles and modern shark teeth have an enameloid covering that largely consists of fluorapatite microcrystals packed together into distinct bundles, the professor explained.

Toward the outer region of the enameloid, they run parallel to the surface of the tooth and are called the "parallel bundled enameloid." Deeper, they become randomly arranged, a region known as the "tangled bundled enameloid."

Finally, passing through these layers is the "radial bundled enameloid," which is composed of packed microcrystals oriented perpendicular to the tooth surface. In terms of function, having bundles of microcrystals arranged in various orientations enables shark teeth to resist the mechanical stresses associated with feeding.

Cook said: "It is likely the bundled microcrystal arrangement of the enameloid of Ischyrhiza mira's rostral denticles also served as a way to withstand mechanical forces."


A cross section of a rostral denticle showing the bundled enameloid. Teeth likely originated in an armored ray that swam the oceans 100 million years ago, according to new research, carried out by a scientific team at Penn State University in the U.S. 

 Jon Mills/SWNS/ Zenger

But the most surprising and important outcome is the study's contribution to the long-standing mystery regarding the origin of teeth. Prof. Cook added: "This finding provides direct evidence supporting the "outside-in" hypothesis, as it shows scales have the capacity to evolve a complex tooth-like enameloid outside of the mouth.

"It is more parsimonious to suggest scales produced a similar bundled microstructure in teeth and rostral denticles than to conclude that both these structures evolved a similar enameloid independently."

Sawfish, also known as carpenter sharks, are a family of rays characterized by a long, narrow, flattened rostrum, or nose extension. They are lined with sharp teeth arranged in a way that resembles a saw. Today, they are among the largest fish with some species reaching lengths of 25 feet.

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Beloved 50ft Humpback Whale Killed by Ship Strike Washes Up in California
Robyn White - 7h ago

A photo shows Fran the whale lying dead on the California coast. The whale was well known in the area.© The Marine Mammal Center

A famous and beloved humpback whale washed up dead in California after being killed by a ship strike.

The whale, measuring nearly 50 foot and nicknamed "Fran," washed up dead on Halfmoon Bay on August 29, Whales of Guerrero said on a Facebook post.

Fran was a well-loved whale known to locals, and was often seen swimming off the coast of California and Mexico. According to Whales of Guerrero, she was one of the most sighted whales in this area.

The Marine Mammal Center carried out a necropsy of the whale and determined she had suffered blunt force trauma in the ship strike.

Ship strikes are one of the most common causes of death in whales. Humpback whales are not endangered or vulnerable, but many other species affected by ship strikes are, such as the North Atlantic right whales.

Research undertaken by non-profit organization Friend of the Sea estimated that 20,000 whales die every year from ship strikes.

Humpback whales can be found in waters worldwide. A population of humpbacks visit the California coast in the summer months to feed. After this, they migrate south towards Mexico.

"This humpback whale had an extensive contusion over her right chest area, a fractured first cervical vertebra and its skull was dislocated from the spinal column," Pádraig Duignan, director of pathology at The Marine Mammal Center, said in a press release. "These findings, combined with overall excellent body condition, strongly implicates blunt force trauma associated with a ship strike as this whale's cause of death."

Fran was first spotted by whale-watchers in 2014, off the coast of Guerrero, Mexico.

"She was the third whale we ever photo IDed and the first whale we resighted in a northern feeding ground. Fran's mom was also known, and this summer, many whale lovers have enjoyed the sight of her feeding with a healthy looking calf from this season. The future is uncertain for her calf, now," Whales of Guerrero said on Facebook. "Hopefully it was already starting to wean and can make it without its mother by now."

Whale expert and research associate at Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County Alisa Schulman-Janiger said on a Facebook post that the news was "devastating."

"Struck to my core by the passing of this whale who I have seen many times; hoping that her calf was well on its way to being weaned, and will be resighted soon, with other humpbacks!" she said on Facebook.

Whales of Guerrero said they hope Fran's death "motivates new laws and improved personal practices on the ocean that will keep humpback whales safer in the future."

Newsweek has reached out to Schulman-Janiger and the Marine Mammal Center for more information.