'Diamond Factory' Discovered at Boundary of Earth's Core

A Quadrillion Tons Of Diamonds May Lie In Earth

The intense heat and pressure at the Earth's core, deep beneath the surface, is enough to make diamonds out of carbon, scientists say.

Researchers from Arizona State University's School of Earth and Space Exploration investigated the conditions at the boundary between the Earth's metal core and the magma in the mantle, and according to their paper published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters, have found that the carbon in the core's liquid iron metal alloy can form diamonds.

"The stable form of carbon at the pressure-temperature conditions of the Earth's core-mantle boundary is diamond," Dan Shim, a professor at Arizona State University and a co-author on the paper, said in a statement.

Stock image of the layers inside the Earth. Scientists have found that diamonds are created at the core-mantle boundary.

ISTOCK / GETTY IMAGES PLUS

The find was dubbed a "diamond factory" by Arizona State University.

The interior of the Earth is divided into several segments, all composed of different ingredients and states of matter. Underneath the thin rocky crust comes the mantle, a slow-moving layer of molten rocks making up 84% of the planet's total volume, according to National Geographic. It sits at between 1,832 degrees F and 6,692 degrees F. Further in comes the Earth's outer and inner core: the outer core is liquid iron and nickel, among other elements, and is around 9,000 degrees F, while the inner core is mostly made of solid iron, due to the intense pressures, and is about as hot as the surface of the sun.

The authors of the paper have measured how carbon in the liquid outer core comes out of the liquid iron metal alloy, reacts with water, and forms diamonds.

"Temperature at the boundary between the silicate mantle and the metallic core at [around 1,800 miles] depth reaches to [about 7,000 degrees Fahrenheit], which is sufficiently high for most minerals to lose H2O captured in their atomic-scale structures," Shim said.

"At the pressures expected for the Earth's core-mantle boundary, hydrogen alloying with iron metal liquid appears to reduce solubility of other light elements in the core. Therefore, solubility of carbon, which likely exists in the Earth's core, decreases locally where hydrogen enters into the core from the mantle (through dehydration)."

"So the carbon escaping from the liquid outer core would become diamond when it enters into the mantle."

Diamonds are made entirely from carbon atoms in a uniquely strong arrangement of chemical bonds. They can be found in the crust across the planet, but are incredibly rare and therefore expensive. Diamonds are thought to have been transported from their origins in the mantle to the Earth's surface via deep-source volcanic eruptions.

Stock image of a diamond. Diamonds have been found to be created at the boundary between the Earth's core and the mantle.

ISTOCK / GETTY IMAGES PLUS

The hardest known substance, the diamond, is used in industry for cutting and abrasion, as well as being a revered and symbolic jewelry gemstone.

"Carbon is an essential element for life and plays an important role in many geological processes. The new discovery of a carbon transfer mechanism from the core to the mantle will shed light on the understanding of the carbon cycle in the Earth's deep interior," Byeongkwan Ko, a recent Arizona State University PhD graduate and co-author of the paper, said in a statement. "This is even more exciting given that the diamond formation at the core-mantle boundary might have been going on for billions of years since the initiation of subduction on the planet."

BY JESS THOMSON - NEWSWEEK- 8/31/22 

Diamonds and rust at the Earth's core-mantle boundary

Scientists in ASU’s School of Earth and Space Exploration help discover that a potential “diamond factory” may have existed at Earth’s core-mantle boundary for billions of years

Peer-Reviewed Publication

ARIZONA STATE UNIVERSITY

Steel rusts by water and air on the Earth’s surface. But what about deep inside the Earth’s interior? 

The Earth’s core is the largest carbon storage on Earth – roughly 90% is buried there. Scientists have shown that the oceanic crust that sits on top of tectonic plates and falls into the interior, through subduction, contains hydrous minerals and can sometimes descend all the way to the core-mantle boundary. The temperature at the core-mantle boundary is at least twice as hot as lava, and high enough that water can be released from the hydrous minerals. Therefore, a chemical reaction similar to rusting steel could occur at Earth’s core-mantle boundary.

Byeongkwan Ko, a recent Arizona State University PhD graduate, and his collaborators published their findings on the core-mantle boundary in Geophysical Research Letters. They conducted experiments at the Advanced Photon Source at Argonne National Laboratory, where they compressed iron-carbon alloy and water together to the pressure and temperature expected at the Earth’s core-mantle boundary, melting the iron-carbon alloy. 

The researchers found that water and metal react and make iron oxides and iron hydroxides, just like what happens with rusting at Earth’s surface. However, they found that for the conditions of the core-mantle boundary carbon comes out of the liquid iron-metal alloy and forms diamond.

“Temperature at the boundary between the silicate mantle and the metallic core at 3,000 km depth reaches to roughly 7,000 F, which is sufficiently high for most minerals to lose H2O captured in their atomic scale structures,” said Dan Shim, professor at ASU’s School of Earth and Space Exploration. “In fact, the temperature is high enough that some minerals should melt at such conditions.”

Because carbon is an iron loving element, significant carbon is expected to exist in the core, while the mantle is thought to have relatively low carbon. However, scientists have found that much more carbon exists in the mantle than expected. 

“At the pressures expected for the Earth's core-mantle boundary, hydrogen alloying with iron metal liquid appears to reduce solubility of other light elements in the core,” said Shim. “Therefore, solubility of carbon, which likely exists in the Earth's core, decreases locally where hydrogen enters into the core from the mantle (through dehydration). The stable form of carbon at the pressure-temperature conditions of Earth's core-mantle boundary is diamond. So the carbon escaping from the liquid outer core would become diamond when it enters into the mantle.”

“Carbon is an essential element for life and plays an important role in many geological processes,” said Ko. “The new discovery of a carbon transfer mechanism from the core to the mantle will shed light on the understanding of the carbon cycle in the Earth’s deep interior. This is even more exciting given that the diamond formation at the core-mantle boundary might have been going on for billions of years since the initiation of subduction on the planet.”

Ko's new study shows that carbon leaking from the core into the mantle by this diamond formation process may supply enough carbon to explain the elevated carbon amounts in the mantle. Ko and his collaborators also predicted that diamond rich structures can exist at the core-mantle boundary and that seismic studies might detect the structures because seismic waves should travel unusually fast for the structures.

“The reason that seismic waves should propagate exceptionally fast through diamond-rich structures at the core-mantle boundary is because diamond is extremely incompressible and less dense than other materials at the core-mantle boundary,” said Shim.

Ko and team will continue investigating how the reaction can also change the concentration of other light elements in the core, such as silicon, sulfur and oxygen, and how such changes can impact the mineralogy of the deep mantle.

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Author: Andrea Chatwood, Communications Specialist, ASU The College of Liberal Arts and Sciences

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JOURNAL

Geophysical Research Letters

DOI

10.1029/2022GL098271 

METHOD OF RESEARCH

Observational study

SUBJECT OF RESEARCH

Not applicable

ARTICLE TITLE

Water-induced diamond formation at Earth's core-mantle boundary

Green Hydrogen Breakthrough Sees Water Turned to Energy at Room Temperature

Ed Browne - Yesterday - NEWSWEEK

Scientists say they have found a new way to generate hydrogen gas from water at room temperature in what could be a step toward a clean and renewable energy source.


A stock illustration depicts an industrial pipe of hydrogen running through the countryside. Hydrogen can be used in fuel cells to produce power, but the element is often made via non-renewable processes.© Petmal/Getty

Hydrogen has been researched as a type of fuel or energy source for years. The modern hydrogen fuel cell, which can power anything from laptop computers to car batteries and power stations, works by combining hydrogen and oxygen atoms in a process that creates water, electricity and a small amount of heat.

As of the end of October 2021, hydrogen fuel cell power generators produced about 260 megawatts of electricity capacity across the United States. By comparison, the average wind turbine produced about 2.75 megawatts in 2020.

Despite its relatively low uptake, hydrogen has been hailed as a green solution to energy woes. But that's not the case today.

While hydrogen is the most abundant element in the universe, we still need to produce it for use in fuel cells. The problem is that about 95 percent of hydrogen is produced from a process involving natural gas, according to the U.S. Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, and that process is not renewable.

There may be a solution to this particular problem, however. Researchers at the University of California, Santa Cruz (UCSC) have found a way to produce hydrogen by developing a special type of aluminum composite that reacts with water at room temperature.

On its own, aluminum is a reactive material that splits oxygen away from water molecules, leaving hydrogen gas behind.

Aluminum won't necessarily do this on its own, however. That's because at room temperature the metal forms a layer of aluminum oxide, which essentially protects it from reacting with water.

What scientists have discovered is that by using an easily produced composite of gallium and aluminum, it is possible to get this material to react with water at room temperature, producing hydrogen.

"We don't need any energy input, and it bubbles hydrogen like crazy," said UCSC chemistry professor Scott Oliver in a university press release. "I've never seen anything like it."

The fact that this aluminum-gallium mixture produces hydrogen has been known for decades. But what the UCSC team found was that increasing the concentration of gallium in the composite also increased the production of hydrogen.

"Our method uses a small amount of aluminum, which ensures it all dissolves into the majority gallium as discrete nanoparticles," Oliver said.

What's more, the composite can be made with easily accessible aluminum sources like foil or cans.

The downside is that gallium is relatively expensive, although it can be recovered in this process and reused multiple times. Another downside is that there is still no widespread uptake of hydrogen fuel cells. While it is possible to burn hydrogen directly as a fuel, it can be hazardous, and tanks often must be highly pressurized to contain useful amounts of it.

It remains to be seen if the UCSC process can be scaled up for the commercial production of hydrogen.

The findings were reported in a study published February 14 in the journal ACS Applied Nano Materials and writtenby Oliver, Bakthan Singaram and their colleagues.

New 'hydrogen alliance' offers Canada an opportunity to export ammonia to Europe

Barry E. Prentice, Professor of Supply Chain Management, University of Manitoba - Yesterday  
The Conversation

Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau, Natural Resources Minister Jonathan Wilkinson, German vice-chancellor Robert Habeck and German Chancellor Olaf Scholz at a hydrogen energy deal signing ceremony on August 23, 2022 in Stephenville, Newfoundland and Labrador.© THE CANADIAN PRESS/Adrian Wyld

A recently announced export agreement between Canada and Germany offers Canada an opportunity to export hydrogen to Europe.

The Hydrogen Alliance proposes a “transatlantic Canada-Germany supply corridor” to start exporting hydrogen by 2025. This target could be reached sooner with the export of hydrogen from Western Canada.

The transportation of hydrogen is more problematic than its production. Hydrogen can be transported as a compressed gas or as liquid hydrogen, but it is most economic to convert it into anhydrous ammonia — which liquefies at much lower pressures — for shipping.

The supply chain proposal is to ship ammonia from Alberta to Europe in specially-designed ammonia freight containers via the Port of Churchill in Manitoba. Ammonia containers shipped from Alberta would connect with the Hudson Bay Railway for delivery to a container terminal at Churchill.


It’s most economic to convert hydrogen into anhydrous ammonia for transportation.© (Shutterstock)

From Churchill, the ammonia could be delivered directly in a container ship to Europe, or proceed via a feeder service to Halifax to be loaded onto larger container ships to cross the Atlantic Ocean.

While a few regulatory barriers need to be addressed, like cabotage — the movement of domestic freight by foreign shippers or trucks — restrictions on feeder transport routes, the project has minimal financial and market risk.
Blue vs. green hydrogen

At the heart of the alliance is a disagreement about the kind of hydrogen that should be produced. Germany wants to import green hydrogen, but Canada wants to keep producing blue hydrogen. Just last year, the Alberta and federal governments agreed to a $1.3 billion blue hydrogen production investment that could result in a hydrogen plant being built in Edmonton.

Blue hydrogen is hydrogen produced from the removal of carbon from methane (natural gas). Instead of the carbon being released into the atmosphere, it is captured and stored permanently underground.

Read more: Blue hydrogen – what is it, and should it replace natural gas?

Green hydrogen is produced with renewable or zero-carbon energy, but it is expensive and is expected to remain so until at least 2030. In 2020, the cost of producing blue hydrogen was $1.50 to $2.0 per kg, versus the cost of green hydrogen at $2.5 to $5 per kg.

The agreement does not guarantee that the hydrogen Canada produces has to be green. However, if Germany does end up resisting the export of blue hydrogen from Canada, other EU countries will undoubtedly step in and take its place.

Revitalizing the Port of Churchill

For decades, the Churchill corridor has been starved of sufficient traffic to maintain the costs of their infrastructure. When grain handling was the Port’s mainstay, annual volumes never exceeded 650,000 tons.

The Hudson Bay Railway requires approximately two million tons of traffic each year to be economically self-sufficient. In 2022, the Manitoba and Canada governments pledged $147 million to upgrade and maintain the railway, which is prone to service disruptions.


The Hydrogen Alliance proposal includes the creation of a supply corridor to ship ammonia from Alberta to Europe via the Port of Churchill in Manitoba.© THE CANADIAN PRESS/John Woods

Ammonia exports could provide the volume needed to make the railway sustainable. One 20-foot container (TEU) of liquid ammonia equals 13.7 tons. Two million tons would equal 146,000 TEUs, or about 365 double-stacked train movements per year. As production increases, Western Canada could supply one 3,500 TEU ship per week.

Container cranes would enable Churchill to attract other exports too. The Hudson Bay Railway would be a lower cost route for the export of grains and legumes to Europe and the Middle East. Opening a container terminal at Churchill could lower transport costs to Nunavut and replace diesel generators with hydrogen fuel cells.

Most of the assets required to develop an ammonia supply chain through the Port of Churchill already exist, with the exception of a container crane and a port terminal to handle ships of 3,500 TEU and larger. The guarantee of long-term traffic flows should help offset any public investment needed to build additional infrastructure.
Fighting the ‘energy war’

The potential market for hydrogen is huge and the risk is minute. Regardless of how the invasion of Ukraine ends, the EU will never allow the Russians to have such a large share of their energy market again.

Russia has been leveraging its power over global energy markets to sustain its economy, which has been largely cut off from the rest of the world through sanctions. In solidarity with Ukraine, Europe and many other countries have been desperately seeking alternatives to Russian oil and gas.

Canada could help Europe combat this “energy war” with Russia by offering an alternative to Russian energy sources. By exporting blue hydrogen from Alberta via the Churchill corridor, Canada would be able to add to the volume of Newfoundland and Labrador exports.
Combating climate change

Movements of oil through the Port of Churchill would likely raise objections of environmentalists because of the risk of spills, but ammonia is a different story. While anhydrous ammonia needs to be handled with care, any accidental release is likely to be limited to a single container and would dissipate quickly.


Canadian Prime Minister Justin Trudeau and German Chancellor Olaf Scholz signed a deal on Aug. 23, 2022, to kickstart a transatlantic hydrogen supply chain, with the first deliveries expected in just three years.© THE CANADIAN PRESS/Adrian Wyld

The export of hydrogen through the Port of Churchill is also consistent with the Government of Canada’s environment policy. Blue hydrogen, which has a relatively low carbon intensity score, has the potential to help Canada meet its 2050 greenhouse gas reduction goal.

A low-carbon economy will require hydrogen production with lower carbon intensity, and blue hydrogen is a step in the right direction. Providing blue hydrogen to export markets will reduce carbon emissions globally as well.

This article is republished from The Conversation, a nonprofit news site dedicated to sharing ideas from academic experts.

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These 3 energy storage technologies can help solve the challenge of moving to 100% renewable electricity

MAVEN and EMM make first observations of patchy proton aurora at Mars

Peer-Reviewed Publication

NASA/GODDARD SPACE FLIGHT CENTER

 

IMAGE: PATCHY PROTON AURORA ON MARS FORM WHEN TURBULENT CONDITIONS AROUND THE PLANET ALLOW CHARGED HYDROGEN PARTICLES FROM THE SUN TO STREAM INTO THE MARTIAN ATMOSPHERE. IMAGES FROM AUGUST 5 SHOW THE TYPICAL ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS, IN WHICH THE EMM INSTRUMENT EMUS DETECTS NO UNUSUAL ACTIVITY AT TWO WAVELENGTHS ASSOCIATED WITH THE HYDROGEN ATOM. BUT ON AUGUST 11 AND AUGUST 30, THE INSTRUMENT OBSERVED PATCHY AURORA AT BOTH WAVELENGTHS, INDICATING TURBULENT INTERACTIONS WITH THE SOLAR WIND. view more 

CREDIT: EMM/EMUS

NASA’s MAVEN (Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution) mission and the United Arab Emirates’ Emirates Mars Mission (EMM) have released joint observations of dynamic proton aurora events at Mars. Remote auroral observations by EMM paired with in-situ plasma observations made by MAVEN open new avenues for understanding the Martian atmosphere. This collaboration was made possible by recent data-sharing between the two missions and highlights the value of multi-point observations in space. A study of these findings appears in the journal Geophysical Research Letters.

In the new study, EMM discovered fine-scale structures in proton aurora that spanned the full day side of Mars. Proton aurora, discovered by MAVEN in 2018, are a type of Martian aurora that form as the solar wind, made up of charged particles from the Sun, interacts with the upper atmosphere. Typical proton aurora observations made by MAVEN and ESA’s (the European Space Agency) Mars Express mission show these aurora appearing smooth and evenly distributed across the hemisphere. By contrast, EMM observed proton aurora that appeared highly dynamic and variable. These “patchy proton aurora” form when turbulent conditions around Mars allow the charged particles to flood directly into the atmosphere and glow as they slow down.

“EMM’s observations suggested that the aurora was so widespread and disorganized that the plasma environment around Mars must have been truly disturbed, to the point that the solar wind was directly impacting the upper atmosphere wherever we observed auroral emission,” said Mike Chaffin, a MAVEN and EMM scientist based at the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado Boulder and lead author of the study. “By combining EMM auroral observations with MAVEN measurements of the auroral plasma environment, we can confirm this hypothesis and determine that what we were seeing was essentially a map of where the solar wind was raining down onto the planet.”

Normally it is difficult for the solar wind to reach Mars’ upper atmosphere because it is redirected by the bow shock and magnetic fields surrounding the planet. The patchy proton aurora observations are therefore a window into rare circumstances – ones during which the Mars-solar wind interaction is chaotic. “The full impact of these conditions on the Martian atmosphere is unknown, but EMM and MAVEN observations will play a key role in understanding these enigmatic events,” said Chaffin.

The data-sharing between MAVEN and EMM has enabled scientists to determine the drivers behind the patchy proton aurora. EMM carries the Emirates Mars Ultraviolet Spectrograph (EMUS) instrument, which observes the Red Planet’s upper atmosphere and exosphere, scanning for variability in atmospheric composition and atmospheric escape to space. MAVEN carries a full suite of plasma instruments, including the Magnetometer (MAG), the Solar Wind Ion Analyzer (SWIA), and the SupraThermal And Thermal Ion Composition (STATIC) instrument used in this study.

“EMM’s global observations of the upper atmosphere provide a unique perspective on a region critical to MAVEN science," said MAVEN Principal Investigator Shannon Curry, of UC Berkeley’s Space Sciences Laboratory. “These types of simultaneous observations probe the fundamental physics of atmospheric dynamics and evolution and highlight the benefits of international scientific collaboration.”

EMM Science Lead Hessa Al Matroushi agreed. “Access to MAVEN data has been essential for placing these new EMM observations into a wider context,” she said. “Together, we’re pushing the boundaries of our existing knowledge not only of Mars, but of planetary interactions with the solar wind.”

Multi-vantage-point measurements have already proven to be an asset in Earth and heliophysics research. At Mars, over half a dozen orbiters are now taking science observations and with Mars’ southern hemisphere currently experiencing summer, when proton aurora is known to be most active, multi-vantage-point observations will be critical to understanding how these events form. The collaboration between EMM and MAVEN demonstrates the value of discovery-level science about the Martian atmosphere with two spacecraft simultaneously observing the same region.

MAVEN’s principal investigator is based at the University of California, Berkeley, while NASA’s Goddard Space Flight Center in Greenbelt, Maryland, manages the MAVEN mission. Lockheed Martin Space built the spacecraft and is responsible for mission operations. NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California provides navigation and Deep Space Network support. The Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics (LASP) at the University of Colorado Boulder is responsible for managing science operations and public outreach and communication.

  

Top image shows the normal proton aurora formation mechanism first discovered in 2018. White lines show that solar wind protons traveling away from the Sun are normally swept around the planet by the Mars magnetosphere, and don't directly interact with the atmosphere. When proton aurora occur, a small fraction of the solar wind collides with Mars hydrogen in the extended corona of the planet (shown in blue), and charge exchanges into neutral H atoms. These newly created H atoms are still travelling at the same speed, and are no longer sensitive to the magnetospheric forces that redirect protons around the planet. Instead, the energetic H atoms slam directly into the upper atmosphere of Mars and collide multiple times with the neutral atmosphere, resulting in auroral emission by the incident H atoms (purple). Because the solar wind and Mars corona are uniform across the planet, the aurora occurs everywhere on the planet's day side with a uniform brightness. Bottom image shows the newly discovered formation mechanism for patchy proton aurora. Green lines in the top image show that under normal conditions the solar wind magnetic field drapes nicely around the planet. By contrast, patchy proton aurora form during unusual circumstances when the solar wind magnetic field is aligned with the proton flow. Under such conditions the typical draped magnetic field configuration is replaced by a highly variable patchwork of plasma structures, and the solar wind is able to directly impact the planet's upper atmosphere in specific locations that depend on the structure of the turbulence. When incoming solar wind protons collide with the neutral atmosphere, they can be neutralized and emit aurora in localized patches. During such times patchy proton aurora forms a map of the locations where solar wind plasma is directly impacting the planet.

CREDIT

Emirates Mars Mission/UAE Space Agency

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JOURNAL

Geophysical Research Letters

DOI

10.1029/2022GL099881 

METHOD OF RESEARCH

Observational study

ARTICLE TITLE

Patchy Proton Aurora at Mars: A Global View of Solar Wind Precipitation Across the Martian Dayside From EMM/EMUS

ARTICLE PUBLICATION DATE

31-Aug-2022

Researchers find spaceflight may be associated with DNA mutations and increased risk of developing heart disease and cancer

Peer-Reviewed Publication

THE MOUNT SINAI HOSPITAL / MOUNT SINAI SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

 

IMAGE: : A) WE IDENTIFIED SOMATIC MUTATIONS IN KNOWN CLONAL HEMATOPOIESIS OF INDETERMINATE POTENTIAL (CHIP) DRIVER GENES USING PERIPHERAL BLOOD MONONUCLEAR CELLS ISOLATED FROM 14 ASTRONAUTS WHO FLEW SHORT SPACE SHUTTLE MISSIONS LASTING A MEDIAN OF 12 DAYS BETWEEN 1998–2001. CREATED WITH BIORENDER.COM. B) NUMBER OF SOMATIC NONSYNONYMOUS SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE VARIANTS (SNVS) IN CHIP-DRIVER GENES HARBORED PER SUBJECT. C) RATES OF DIFFERENT SUBSTITUTION TYPES OBSERVED IN CLONAL SNVS. ONLY ONE GUANINE TO THYMINE TRANSITION WAS OBSERVED. D) DENSITY OF MUTATIONS BY VAF FOR EACH MUTATION TYPE. view more 

CREDIT: COMMUNICATIONS BIOLOGY / MOUNT SINAI HEALTH SYSTEM

Astronauts are at higher risk for developing mutations—possibly linked to spaceflight—that can increase the risk of developing cancer and heart disease during their lifetimes, according to a first-of-its kind study from the Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai. 

A team of researchers collected blood samples from National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) astronauts who flew space shuttle missions between 1998 and 2001. They discovered DNA mutations, known as somatic mutations, in the blood-forming system (hematopoietic stem cells) in all 14 astronauts studied. Their findings, published in the August issue of Nature Communications Biology, suggest that spaceflight could be associated with these mutations and emphasize the importance of ongoing blood screening of astronauts throughout their careers and during their retirement to monitor their health.

Somatic mutations are mutations that occur after a person is conceived and in cells other than sperm or egg cells, meaning they cannot be passed on to offspring. The mutations identified in this study were characterized by the overrepresentation of blood cells derived from a single clone, a process called clonal hematopoiesis (CH). Such mutations are frequently caused by environmental factors, such as exposure to ultraviolet radiation or certain chemicals, and may be a result of cancer chemo- or radiotherapy. There are few signs or symptoms associated with CH; most patients are identified after genetic testing of their blood for other diseases. Although CH is not necessarily an indicator of disease, it is associated with a higher risk for cardiovascular disease and blood cancer.

“Astronauts work in an extreme environment where many factors can result in somatic mutations, most importantly space radiation, which means there is a risk that these mutations could develop into clonal hematopoiesis. Given the growing interest in both commercial spaceflights and deep space exploration, and the potential health risks of exposure to various harmful factors that are associated with repeated or long-duration exploration space missions, such as a trip to Mars, we decided to explore, retrospectively, somatic mutation in the cohort of 14 astronauts,” said the study’s lead author David Goukassian, MD, Professor of Medicine (Cardiology) with the Cardiovascular Research Institute at Icahn Mount Sinai.

The study subjects were astronauts who flew relatively short (median 12 days) space shuttle missions between 1998 and 2001. Their median age was approximately 42 years old; roughly 85 percent were male, and six of the 14 were on their first mission. The researchers collected whole blood samples from the astronauts 10 days before their flight and on the day of landing, and white blood cells only three days after landing. The samples were stored at -80ºC for approximately 20 years.

Using DNA sequencing followed by extensive bioinformatics analyses, researchers identified 34 mutations in 17 CH-driver genes. The most frequent mutations occurred in TP53, a gene that produces a tumor-suppressing protein, and DNMT3A, one of the most frequently mutated genes in acute myeloid leukemia. However, the frequency of the somatic mutations in the genes that the researchers assessed was less than two percent, the technical threshold for somatic mutations in hematopoietic stem cells to be considered clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential (CHIP). CHIP is more common in older individuals and is associated with increased risk of developing cardiovascular disease and both hematologic and solid cancer.

“Although the clonal hematopoiesis we observed was of a relatively small size, the fact that we observed these mutations was surprising given the relatively young age and health of these astronauts. The presence of these mutations does not necessarily mean that the astronauts will develop cardiovascular disease or cancer, but there is the risk that, over time, this could happen through ongoing and prolonged exposure to the extreme environment of deep space,” Dr. Goukassian said. “Through this study, we have shown that we can determine the individual susceptibility of astronauts to develop disease related to their work without any implications that can affect their ability to do their work. Indeed, our studies demonstrate the importance of early and ongoing screening to assess that susceptibility. Our recommendation is that NASA, and its medical team, screen astronauts for somatic mutations and possible clonal expansion, or regression, every three to five years, and, not less importantly, well into their retirement years when somatic mutations may expand clonally and become CHIP.”

The team’s research follows previous studies that used the same samples to identify predictive biomarkers in exosomes—small lipid-layered microscopic vesicles of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and metabolites that form within the cells of the human body and are subsequently released into the blood circulation, hence carrying the information from their cells of origin that reflects their intercellular condition. This feature of exosomes may qualify them as great biomarkers of health and/or disease, as well as transfer information from one cell to another at great distance in the body. When they treated human heart cells with exosomes derived from astronauts, the researchers found that the exosomes affected the biology of the vitamin D receptor, which plays a key role in bone, heart, and skeletal muscle health. They also assessed the impact of space flight on mitochondrial DNA—the genome of small organelles that supply energy to cells. In that study, the team found that the amount of cell-free mitochondrial DNA circulating in the blood of astronauts was two to 350 times higher than normal, which may lead to oxidative damage and inflammation elsewhere in the body.

“Through these studies, we have demonstrated the potential to assess the health risk of space flight among astronauts. What is important now is to conduct longitudinal retrospective and well-controlled prospective studies involving a large number of astronauts to see how that risk evolves based on continued exposure and then compare that data against their clinical symptoms, imaging, and lab results. That will enable us to make informed predictions as to which individuals are more likely to develop disease based on the phenomena we are seeing and open the door to individualized precision medicine approaches to early intervention and prevention,” said Dr. Goukassian.

About the Mount Sinai Health System

Mount Sinai Health System is one of the largest academic medical systems in the New York metro area, with more than 43,000 employees working across eight hospitals, over 400 outpatient practices, nearly 300 labs, a school of nursing, and a leading school of medicine and graduate education. Mount Sinai advances health for all people, everywhere, by taking on the most complex health care challenges of our time — discovering and applying new scientific learning and knowledge; developing safer, more effective treatments; educating the next generation of medical leaders and innovators; and supporting local communities by delivering high-quality care to all who need it.

Through the integration of its hospitals, labs, and schools, Mount Sinai offers comprehensive health care solutions from birth through geriatrics, leveraging innovative approaches such as artificial intelligence and informatics while keeping patients’ medical and emotional needs at the center of all treatment. The Health System includes approximately 7,300 primary and specialty care physicians; 13 joint-venture outpatient surgery centers throughout the five boroughs of New York City, Westchester, Long Island, and Florida; and more than 30 affiliated community health centers. We are consistently ranked by U.S. News & World Report's Best Hospitals, receiving high "Honor Roll" status, and are highly ranked: No. 1 in Geriatrics and top 20 in Cardiology/Heart Surgery, Diabetes/Endocrinology, Gastroenterology/GI Surgery, Neurology/Neurosurgery, Orthopedics, Pulmonology/Lung Surgery, Rehabilitation, and Urology. New York Eye and Ear Infirmary of Mount Sinai is ranked No. 12 in Ophthalmology. U.S. News & World Report’s “Best Children’s Hospitals” ranks Mount Sinai Kravis Children's Hospital among the country’s best in several pediatric specialties. The Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai is one of three medical schools that have earned distinction by multiple indicators: It is consistently ranked in the top 20 by U.S. News & World Report's "Best Medical Schools," aligned with a U.S. News & World Report "Honor Roll" Hospital, and top 20 in the nation for National Institutes of Health funding and top 5 in the nation for numerous basic and clinical research areas. Newsweek’s “The World’s Best Smart Hospitals” ranks The Mount Sinai Hospital as No. 1 in New York and in the top five globally, and Mount Sinai Morningside in the top 20 globally. For more information, visit https://www.mountsinai.org or find Mount Sinai on Facebook, Twitter, and YouTube.

 

 

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JOURNAL

Communications Biology

ARTICLE TITLE

Retrospective analysis of somatic mutations and clonal hematopoiesis in astronauts

'No smoking gun': Calgary scientists studying Mars soil for signs it supported life

CALGARY — A University of Calgary scientist is hoping to determine whether Mars was ever capable of supporting life.


'No smoking gun': Calgary scientists studying Mars soil for signs it supported life

© Provided by The Canadian Press

Ben Tutolo, an associate professor in the Department of Geoscience and Faculty of Science, began his research earlier this year and is using data from the Curiosity rover that's been exploring the Red Planet for the past decade.

The Canadian Space Agency, as part of the NASA-led Mars Science Laboratory mission, is funding the three-year study.

"The mission is to follow the water and understand -- were ancient environments on other planets, like Mars, habitable?" said Tutolo, who is conducting the research alongside professor Steve Larter and associate professor Rachel Lauer.

"What we're doing with the Curiosity rover is exploring the rock record there (to) understand if these rocks at that time were ultimately habitable."

Tutolo said Curiosity has been providing a steady stream of data and has been collecting and analyzing samples as it slowly makes its way up Mount Sharp in the Gale Crater.

The rover, which had travelled almost 28 kilometres as of May 1, has multiple analyzers that can determine the chemistry and mineralogy of the rocks or soil surface on Mars. Its Canadian-made Alpha Particle X-ray Spectrometer has analyzed 1,211 samples and sent 2,659 results back to Earth.

"It's scooping up, drilling samples … it can utilize in situ like a roving geologist who would also have a geochemical laboratory in the field," Tutolo said.

The focus of the research is to study the geological transition from the oldest lake sediments where Curiosity began its exploration to younger layers of sediment farther up.

Tutolo said the geological evidence from the oldest rocks in the crater show they are from a river-fed lake that contained water.

The newer specimens have found magnesium sulphate salts, which were likely the result of the water evaporating as the planet became drier, he said.

"Obviously the transition has happened. There are no oceans or lakes on the planet today," Tutolo said.

He said the team is also conducting field research at the Basque Lakes near Cache Creek, B.C., which contain the same sulphate minerals found on Mount Sharp on Mars.

However, Tutolo said the fact that the Mars crater is 3.5 billion years old means there might not be a definite answer to whether life did exist there.

"They have all been degraded in some ways. They've all been transformed by the geological processes working overtime in the crater so … there will be no smoking gun," Tutolo said.

But he said if the rock record shows it was theoretically habitable, then it can still answer some questions.

"If it was habitable, then we could start putting together scenarios for how life could have originated in such an environment and if it did originate, how it could potentially thrive in such an environment," he said.

"I think what we can do as objective scientists is read the story that is written in the rocks and understand and lay the foundation and paint the picture of whether it was possible."

This report by The Canadian Press was first published Sept. 1, 2022.

Bill Graveland, The Canadian Press

Surface microstructures of lunar soil returned by Chang’e-5 mission reveal an intermediate stage in space weathering process

Peer-Reviewed Publication

SCIENCE CHINA PRESS

 

IMAGE: FEO-NANOPARTICLE-EMBEDDED AMORPHOUS RIM OUTSIDE OF OLIVINE GRAIN RETURNED BY CHANG’E-5 MISSION view more 

CREDIT: ©SCIENCE CHINA PRESS

This study is conducted by a joint team from Chinese Academy of Sciences. They use aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (TEM), Electron-energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) and scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) to examine the microstructures and chemical compositions at nano/atomic scales of 25 soil grains (1-3 μm in size) from Sample CE5C0400YJFM00507 (1.5 g). The soil mainly includes minerals olivine, pyroxene, anorthite and glass bead. To avoid possible chemical contamination and ion-bombing-induced amorphization, we do not employ the focused ion beam (FIB) to cut the bulk samples except glass bead. Firstly, they unambiguously identify the wüstite FeO nanoparticles instead of npFe0 that are embedded in amorphous SixOy rims outside the olivine grains. This unique rim structure has not been reported for any other lunar, terrestrial, Martian, or meteorite samples so far. Given that the nano-phase Fe is the final product of decomposing olivine Fe2SiO4, we suggest that wüstite FeO may serve as an intermediate state of the thermal decomposition process, and then the FeO may further transform into nano-phase Fe with the aid of in the presence of cosmic radiation or solar flare. Secondly, for pyroxene and anorthite, the chemical compositions of surface areas are identical to interior parts, and there is no SixOy rim outside sample. Meanwhile, no foreign volatile elements deposition layer and solar flare tracks can be found on the surface or inside the olivine and other minerals. Such findings imply that the studied samples do not undergo severe space weathering, and the underlying mechanism deserves further investigation. It provides clues or constraints on the incipient formation mechanism of rim structure under space weathering.

---

JOURNAL

Science Bulletin

DOI

10.1016/j.scib.2022.06.019 

Scientists prepare to send a balloon to search for “messengers from outer space”

EUSO-SPB2 experiment, led by UChicago physicist Angela Olinto, planned to launch in 2023

Grant and Award Announcement

UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO

 

IMAGE: NASA ASTROPHYSICIST TONIA VENTERS AND JEM-EUSO SPOKESPERSON ETIENNE PARIZOT REVIEW THE PARTIALLY ASSEMBLED FLUORESCENCE TELESCOPE, PART OF A MISSION TO FLY 110,000 FEET ABOVE THE EARTH TO SEARCH FOR INCOMING PARTICLES, AT THE COLORADO SCHOOL OF MINES. view more 

CREDIT: PHOTO BY ANGELA OLINTO

Members of the EUSO SPB2 team (IMAGE)

 

Members of the EUSO SPB2 team in front of the Cherenkov telescope during tests in Utah. From left to right: Lawrence Wiencke, Tobias Heibges, Viktoria Kungel, Eliza Gazda, Mahdi Bagheri, George Filippatos, Oscar Romero Matamala, Evgeny Kuznetsov, and Nepomuk Otte.

CREDIT

Photo by Jihyun Kim

Humans want to mine the moon. Here's what space law experts say the rules are

Jaela Bernstien -CBC

Mining the moon might sound like a concept that belongs in a science fiction novel, but it's likely to be a part of reality in the not-so-distant future. That's made it a hot topic of discussion among space lawyers — yes, there are space lawyers — on Earth.

When Michelle Hanlon, co-director of the Air and Space Law Program at the University of Mississippi, tells people what she does for a living, she says most people are confused.

"Most people think I'm a real estate lawyer — what kind of space do you sell?" she said, laughing. But in fact, Hanlon is an expert in the law governing outer space.

There are several international agreements governing space, including The Outer Space Treaty, which was drafted during the Cold War and signed by more than 100 countries including the United States, China and Russia.

That treaty, which states "outer space, including the moon and other celestial bodies, is not subject to national appropriation by claim of sovereignty," is what prevents countries from swooping in and declaring ownership over the moon.


An artistic rendering of the planned International Lunar Research Station, a collaboration in development by China and Russia.© China National Space Administration

"You cannot plant a flag anywhere in space and say this now belongs to the United States, this now belongs to Russia, this now belongs to China," Hanlon said.

But when it comes to mining the moon for resources, things get more complicated. Legal experts are working on teasing out exactly how that treaty applies when nations — or private companies working on behalf of nations — start harvesting resources from the moon or asteroids.

"By building a mining operation, some would argue ... you're actually claiming sovereignty by another means," Hanlon said. "We have to learn to do something in space that we haven't yet learned how to do on Earth. And that is: be mindful and respectful of each other."

That will be put to the test in the next few years, as major space-faring nations race to establish bases on the moon.

NASA's Artemis mission, which the Canadian Space Agency is contributing to, hopes to send humans to the moon by 2030.

This time around, the plan is not just to visit but to stay for good. That includes building a base camp at the lunar south pole, as well as a lunar gateway — a spaceship that would orbit the moon.

China and Russia have their own lunar base in development, a collaboration between the two countries called the International Lunar Research Station.

In order to avoid hauling resources from Earth to sustain those habitats, space programs are hoping to harvest resources from the moon's icy surface. That's includes water — essential for human life and a source for fuel when broken down into hydrogen and oxygen — as well as rare earth minerals and helium-3, a potential source of energy.

NASA has selected four companies to "collect space resources" on its behalf and launched a competition for the public to design, build and test prototypes to excavate icy moon dirt.

"The moon is pretty large and the moon itself isn't going to get crowded, but the areas where we know there is water are going to get crowded," Hanlon said.

Not the Wild West

Given the track record of mining on Earth, including the human toll and environmental damages, there are concerns the same mistakes will be repeated when humans become a truly space-faring species.

"I do worry at times," said Kuan-Wei Chen, a legal expert in space law and the executive director of McGill University's Centre for Research in Air and Space Law.

"We don't want to have again the repeat of history, when countries and commercial operators go to what they call a 'new world' to start fighting and engaging in conflict over resources."

That's why, he says, its up to academics and governments to emphasize that there are laws governing space.

"Space is not a legal vacuum. It's not the Wild West. It should not be the Wild West."


NASA's Artemis 1 rocket sits in place at the Kennedy Space Center in Cape Canaveral, Florida. A second launch attempt for the uncrewed spacecraft is planned for Saturday.

© John Raoux/The Associated Press

To help guide countries through those existing frameworks, Chen worked with a team at McGill University as well as a coalition of international experts to produce a manual on international law in outer space.

Given current geopolitical tensions, including Russia announcing it will leave the International Space Station and build its own, Chen says its better to work with the treaties that already exist rather than try to get countries agree to a new one.

But the outer space treaty is open to interpretation when it comes to mining.

"The law says very clearly it's not allowed to appropriate the moon. Now, does that mean you're not allowed to extract and use your resources that are found in the soil or the subsoil of the moon? That's not clear," Chen said.

Generally agreed: If you mine it, you own it

NASA introduced the Artemis Accords in 2020, as what it describes as establishing "a safe and transparent environment which facilitates exploration, science, and commercial activities for all of humanity to enjoy."

In a statement sent to CBC, a spokesperson said that "extraction of space resources does not inherently constitute national appropriation."

But Russia and China have not signed the U.S.-led accords, and experts say they are unlikely to do so.

"Russia and China believe very strongly that the only place you can make space law is within the United Nations and they see the Artemis Accords as trying to circumvent that," Hanlon said.

"I think the US would say we're not circumventing, we're just jump starting."

Regardless, Hanlon said the Artemis Accords' interpretation of the Outer Space Treaty as it applies to mining are in line with what has been generally accepted. She says that takeway — which China and Russia have never disagreed with — can be summed up as "if you mine it, you own it."

As nations inch closer to establishing a presence on the moon and beyond, Hanlon and Chen agree there needs to be more awareness about how international law applies.

The hope is that nations will respect the current treaties and find a way to harvest resources equitably and sustainably.

If they don't, or if conflict arises, the international community will have to rely on diplomatic pressures — or there is the potential to turn to the International Court of Justice.

"We need to make sure that whatever we do in outer space and also on the moon will not have a detrimental impact on on us right now, but also the future generation," Chen said.

"These international laws ... were drafted with those guiding principles of ensuring that space is a peaceful domain, and ensuring that there is a sustainable future for the future of humankind in outer space, on the moon and on other planets."

NASA made enough oxygen on Mars to last an astronaut for 100 minutes


By Jacklin Kwan, New Scientist

The MOXIE experiment landed on Mars on NASA's Perseverance rover (artists's impression) NASA/JPL-Caltech

NASA’s small experiment to produce oxygen on Mars managed to generate about 100 minutes’ worth of breathable oxygen in 2021. Now it is set to be scaled up to support future human exploration.

The Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment (MOXIE) is a small oxygen-generating device that landed on the Red Planet atop the Perseverance rover in February 2021.
The science of supernovae Or Graur at New Scientist Live this October

Over the course of seven hour-long production runs during that year, MOXIE was able to reliably produce roughly 15 minutes of oxygen per hour in a variety of harsh planetary conditions. That added up to a total of 50 grams of oxygen in total – about 100 minutes’ worth of breathable oxygen for a single astronaut.

“At the highest level, this is just a brilliant success,” says Michael Hecht at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology Haystack Observatory, who co-leads the MOXIE experiment.

Read more: Mars astronauts would get unsafe radiation doses even with shielding

In day or night, at different extreme temperatures and in the wake of a dust storm, Hecht says that MOXIE continued producing high-purity oxygen.

The NASA team is now looking to create a bigger version of the device, which would produce not only enough life support for a crewed Mars mission, but also enough oxygen to propel a return rocket to Earth.

MOXIE requires pumps and compressors to suck in carbon dioxide from the Martian atmosphere as well as heaters that can raise the air’s temperature to 800°C (1470°F).

The device then pulls the oxygen atoms from the carbon dioxide to produce oxygen gas, which MOXIE has been measuring, before releasing it.

There will be some challenges in scaling up this technology, though, says Gerald Sanders at the NASA Johnson Space Center in Houston, Texas.

These include being able to insulate a larger version of MOXIE to manage its internal temperature and ensuring that the device heats up uniformly to prevent it from breaking.

Sanders also says that an oxygen device that can support a human mission would need to operate continuously for about 400 days, and so far, MOXIE’s runs have only lasted for an hour each.

“That’s a lot of hours to put on the hardware, irrespective of what the technology is,” he says.

Nonetheless, MOXIE’s first year of success has been a big step forward in showing the technology’s potential, says Sanders.

NASA is now testing the hardware needed at a scale that would be relevant to a human mission. The larger version is likely to be about a cubic metre in size, which shouldn’t present a problem for launches.