Sunday, August 15, 2021
How a simple crystal could help pave the way to full-scale quantum computing
Disclosure statement
Jarryd Pla receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is also an inventor on patents related to quantum computing.
Andrew Dzurak receives research funding from the Australian Research Council and the US Army Research Office. He is a member of the Executive Board of the Sydney Quantum Academy and a member of the Executive of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology. He is also an inventor on a number of patents related to quantum computing.
Partners
UNSW provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.
August 13, 2021
Vaccine and drug development, artificial intelligence, transport and logistics, climate science — these are all areas that stand to be transformed by the development of a full-scale quantum computer. And there has been explosive growth in quantum computing investment over the past decade.
Yet current quantum processors are relatively small in scale, with fewer than 100 qubits — the basic building blocks of a quantum computer. Bits are the smallest unit of information in computing, and the term qubits stems from “quantum bits”.
While early quantum processors have been crucial for demonstrating the potential of quantum computing, realising globally significant applications will likely require processors with upwards of a million qubits.
Our new research tackles a core problem at the heart of scaling up quantum computers: how do we go from controlling just a few qubits, to controlling millions? In research published today in Science Advances, we reveal a new technology that may offer a solution.
What exactly is a quantum computer?
Quantum computers use qubits to hold and process quantum information. Unlike the bits of information in classical computers, qubits make use of the quantum properties of nature, known as “superposition” and “entanglement”, to perform some calculations much faster than their classical counterparts.
Unlike a classical bit, which is represented by either 0 or 1, a qubit can exist in two states (that is, 0 and 1) at the same time. This is what we refer to as a superposition state.
Demonstrations by Google and others have shown even current, early-stage quantum computers can outperform the most powerful supercomputers on the planet for a highly specialised (albeit not particularly useful) task — reaching a milestone we call quantum supremacy.
Google’s quantum computer, built from superconducting electrical circuits, had just 53 qubits and was cooled to a temperature below -273℃ in a high-tech refrigerator. This extreme temperature is needed to remove heat, which can introduce errors to the fragile qubits. While such demonstrations are important, the challenge now is to build quantum processors with many more qubits.
Major efforts are underway at UNSW Sydney to make quantum computers from the same material used in everyday computer chips: silicon. A conventional silicon chip is thumbnail-sized and packs in several billion bits, so the prospect of using this technology to build a quantum computer is compelling.
Read more: Quantum computers could arrive sooner if we build them with traditional silicon technology
The control problem
In silicon quantum processors, information is stored in individual electrons, which are trapped beneath small electrodes at the chip’s surface. Specifically, the qubit is coded into the electron’s spin. It can be pictured as a small compass inside the electron. The needle of the compass can point north or south, which represents the 0 and 1 states.
To set a qubit in a superposition state (both 0 and 1), an operation that occurs in all quantum computations, a control signal must be directed to the desired qubit. For qubits in silicon, this control signal is in the form of a microwave field, much like the ones used to carry phone calls over a 5G network. The microwaves interact with the electron and cause its spin (compass needle) to rotate.
Currently, each qubit requires its own microwave control field. It is delivered to the quantum chip through a cable running from room temperature down to the bottom of the refrigerator at close to -273℃. Each cable brings heat with it, which must be removed before it reaches the quantum processor.
At around 50 qubits, which is state-of-the-art today, this is difficult but manageable. Current refrigerator technology can cope with the cable heat load. However, it represents a huge hurdle if we’re to use systems with a million qubits or more.
The solution is ‘global’ control
An elegant solution to the challenge of how to deliver control signals to millions of spin qubits was proposed in the late 1990s. The idea of “global control” was simple: broadcast a single microwave control field across the entire quantum processor.
Voltage pulses can be applied locally to qubit electrodes to make the individual qubits interact with the global field (and produce superposition states).
It’s much easier to generate such voltage pulses on-chip than it is to generate multiple microwave fields. The solution requires only a single control cable and removes obtrusive on-chip microwave control circuitry.
For more than two decades global control in quantum computers remained an idea. Researchers could not devise a suitable technology that could be integrated with a quantum chip and generate microwave fields at suitably low powers.
In our work we show that a component known as a dielectric resonator could finally allow this. The dielectric resonator is a small, transparent crystal which traps microwaves for a short period of time.
The trapping of microwaves, a phenomenon known as resonance, allows them to interact with the spin qubits longer and greatly reduces the power of microwaves needed to generate the control field. This was vital to operating the technology inside the refrigerator.
In our experiment, we used the dielectric resonator to generate a control field over an area that could contain up to four million qubits. The quantum chip used in this demonstration was a device with two qubits. We were able to show the microwaves produced by the crystal could flip the spin state of each one.
The path to a full-scale quantum computer
There is still work to be done before this technology is up to the task of controlling a million qubits. For our study, we managed to flip the state of the qubits, but not yet produce arbitrary superposition states.
Experiments are ongoing to demonstrate this critical capability. We’ll also need to further study the impact of the dielectric resonator on other aspects of the quantum processor.
That said, we believe these engineering challenges will ultimately be surmountable — clearing one of the greatest hurdles to realising a large-scale spin-based quantum computer.
Vaccine and drug development, artificial intelligence, transport and logistics, climate science — these are all areas that stand to be transformed by the development of a full-scale quantum computer. And there has been explosive growth in quantum computing investment over the past decade.
Yet current quantum processors are relatively small in scale, with fewer than 100 qubits — the basic building blocks of a quantum computer. Bits are the smallest unit of information in computing, and the term qubits stems from “quantum bits”.
While early quantum processors have been crucial for demonstrating the potential of quantum computing, realising globally significant applications will likely require processors with upwards of a million qubits.
Our new research tackles a core problem at the heart of scaling up quantum computers: how do we go from controlling just a few qubits, to controlling millions? In research published today in Science Advances, we reveal a new technology that may offer a solution.
What exactly is a quantum computer?
Quantum computers use qubits to hold and process quantum information. Unlike the bits of information in classical computers, qubits make use of the quantum properties of nature, known as “superposition” and “entanglement”, to perform some calculations much faster than their classical counterparts.
Unlike a classical bit, which is represented by either 0 or 1, a qubit can exist in two states (that is, 0 and 1) at the same time. This is what we refer to as a superposition state.
Demonstrations by Google and others have shown even current, early-stage quantum computers can outperform the most powerful supercomputers on the planet for a highly specialised (albeit not particularly useful) task — reaching a milestone we call quantum supremacy.
Google’s quantum computer, built from superconducting electrical circuits, had just 53 qubits and was cooled to a temperature below -273℃ in a high-tech refrigerator. This extreme temperature is needed to remove heat, which can introduce errors to the fragile qubits. While such demonstrations are important, the challenge now is to build quantum processors with many more qubits.
Major efforts are underway at UNSW Sydney to make quantum computers from the same material used in everyday computer chips: silicon. A conventional silicon chip is thumbnail-sized and packs in several billion bits, so the prospect of using this technology to build a quantum computer is compelling.
Read more: Quantum computers could arrive sooner if we build them with traditional silicon technology
The control problem
In silicon quantum processors, information is stored in individual electrons, which are trapped beneath small electrodes at the chip’s surface. Specifically, the qubit is coded into the electron’s spin. It can be pictured as a small compass inside the electron. The needle of the compass can point north or south, which represents the 0 and 1 states.
To set a qubit in a superposition state (both 0 and 1), an operation that occurs in all quantum computations, a control signal must be directed to the desired qubit. For qubits in silicon, this control signal is in the form of a microwave field, much like the ones used to carry phone calls over a 5G network. The microwaves interact with the electron and cause its spin (compass needle) to rotate.
Currently, each qubit requires its own microwave control field. It is delivered to the quantum chip through a cable running from room temperature down to the bottom of the refrigerator at close to -273℃. Each cable brings heat with it, which must be removed before it reaches the quantum processor.
At around 50 qubits, which is state-of-the-art today, this is difficult but manageable. Current refrigerator technology can cope with the cable heat load. However, it represents a huge hurdle if we’re to use systems with a million qubits or more.
The solution is ‘global’ control
An elegant solution to the challenge of how to deliver control signals to millions of spin qubits was proposed in the late 1990s. The idea of “global control” was simple: broadcast a single microwave control field across the entire quantum processor.
Voltage pulses can be applied locally to qubit electrodes to make the individual qubits interact with the global field (and produce superposition states).
It’s much easier to generate such voltage pulses on-chip than it is to generate multiple microwave fields. The solution requires only a single control cable and removes obtrusive on-chip microwave control circuitry.
For more than two decades global control in quantum computers remained an idea. Researchers could not devise a suitable technology that could be integrated with a quantum chip and generate microwave fields at suitably low powers.
In our work we show that a component known as a dielectric resonator could finally allow this. The dielectric resonator is a small, transparent crystal which traps microwaves for a short period of time.
The trapping of microwaves, a phenomenon known as resonance, allows them to interact with the spin qubits longer and greatly reduces the power of microwaves needed to generate the control field. This was vital to operating the technology inside the refrigerator.
In our experiment, we used the dielectric resonator to generate a control field over an area that could contain up to four million qubits. The quantum chip used in this demonstration was a device with two qubits. We were able to show the microwaves produced by the crystal could flip the spin state of each one.
Illustration of a crystal dielectric resonator producing a global control field in a spin quantum processor. Tony Melov
The path to a full-scale quantum computer
There is still work to be done before this technology is up to the task of controlling a million qubits. For our study, we managed to flip the state of the qubits, but not yet produce arbitrary superposition states.
Experiments are ongoing to demonstrate this critical capability. We’ll also need to further study the impact of the dielectric resonator on other aspects of the quantum processor.
That said, we believe these engineering challenges will ultimately be surmountable — clearing one of the greatest hurdles to realising a large-scale spin-based quantum computer.
Authors
Disclosure statement
Jarryd Pla receives funding from the Australian Research Council. He is also an inventor on patents related to quantum computing.
Andrew Dzurak receives research funding from the Australian Research Council and the US Army Research Office. He is a member of the Executive Board of the Sydney Quantum Academy and a member of the Executive of the ARC Centre of Excellence for Quantum Computation and Communication Technology. He is also an inventor on a number of patents related to quantum computing.
Partners
UNSW provides funding as a member of The Conversation AU.
The Nation Proving That Oil And Renewables Aren’t Opposed
After decades of world-leading oil and gas production, Norway is looking to stake its claim on a piece of the renewables market. But can the oil giant become a role model for green energy while still earning off its oil legacy? Just two years ago, Norway ranked 15th worldwide for oil production, and eighth for gas. Its longstanding relationship with oil and gas has allowed it to create its $1.4 trillion sovereign wealth fund to ensure that the country does not come to rely on oil and gas alone, by diversifying investments to the non-oil sector.
In April this year, Norway announced the first investment from the sovereign wealth fund into a renewable energy project. The Norges Bank Investment Management which manages the fund acquired a 50 percent stake in the Borssele offshore wind farm in the Netherlands from Denmark’s Ørsted A/S for $1.63 billion. The project is the second-largest operating wind farm in the world with a capacity of 752 megawatts, providing energy for around 1 million Dutch households every year.
At the local level, Raymond Johansen, Oslo’s governing mayor, has big plans for the Oslo Varme plant, a waste incinerator, which he intends to retrofit with €700m of carbon capture technology. If successful, the plant could be a model for other European cities and support the aim of a 95 percent reduction in Oslo’s carbon emissions by 2030.
As well as investing in renewable energy development, the government is also encouraging the public to make the switch from oil and gas use to alternatives. For example, Norway has waived high taxes charged for traditional cars for electric vehicles (EV), allowing owners to drive Teslas and other EVs in bus lanes, on toll roads for free, to access free parking and charging stations across the country. This is in the hope that only EVs will be sold in the country by as early as 2025.
Related: Why An Oil Deal Between Kurdistan And Baghdad Is Unlikely
But as Norway looks to renewable energy for domestic use, planning to make the shift away from gas and oil entirely, its oil production is far from over. The country is, in fact, increasing its oil production for export over the next decade ahead of an inevitable dip in demand as renewable energy becomes more readily available.
As Norway’s state-owned oil giant Equinor continues its significant exploration and production projects around the world, the country’s oil and gas activities are still going strong. And yet, at the national level, Norway runs almost entirely on renewable power.
At present, around 200,0000 people are employed in Norway’s oil and gas industry, meaning as the country makes the shift to renewable energy development it must consider the needs and expectations of a Norwegian population that continues to rely heavily on fossil fuels for employment.
Politicians argue that it is an asset for Norway to have its hands both in oil and gas as well as renewables as it has a longstanding history in the industry and can provide cleaner fossil fuel production, by adopting carbon capture and storage technologies to lower emissions, than its competitors.
Petroleum and Energy Minister Tina Bru explained, “I do not have a bad conscience for Norway being an ambitious climate nation at the same time as we have oil and gas production,” suggesting that her party would not be following the IEA road map because “if we were to decide tomorrow that we’ll stop producing oil and gas on the Norwegian shelf, other countries will say: ‘Okay, we will supply this’.”
As many criticize Norway for apparent hypocrisy, being both an oil and gas as well as a renewable energy leader may actually play to the country’s advantage. By developing a world-leading renewables sector while working to adapt its oil and gas production to become cleaner, Norway could continue to lead the way in both industries, ultimately encouraging others to adopt better practices.
By Felicity Bradstock for Oilprice.com
Central Alberta anti-lockdown activist suing province, health officials over COVID orders
Challenge alleges Christopher Scott’s freedom of expression and peaceful gathering rights violated
Chris Scott, owner of the Whistle Stop Cafe, speaks during a rally against measures taken by government and health authorities to curb the spread of COVID-19 at his cafe in Mirror on Saturday. The Whistle Stop was shut down by AHS for not complying with COVID-19 rules. (Photo by The Canadian Press)
PAUL COWLEY
Aug. 12, 2021
Anti-lockdown activist and Mirror café owner Chris Scott is suing the province, arguing his constitutional rights were violated.
The legal action filed last month by Scott’s Calgary lawyer, Chad Williamson, names the province, chief medical officer of health Dr. Deena Hinshaw and Alberta Health Services.
It claims health orders that were issued by the province during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic prevented people from gathering for a political purpose and “is unacceptable in a free and democratic liberal society.”
The lawsuit also claims the order violated sections of the Alberta Bill of Rights.
Whistle Stop cafe owner Scott was arrested at an anti-lockdown rally he helped organize on May 8. In June, he was found guilty of violating an injunction prohibiting the protest. Sentencing is expected to take place on Sept. 13.
Williamson said the constitutional challenge seeks a declaration that any orders issued that prevent political gatherings under the guise of public health are unlawful or invalid.
It’s alleged that since March 2020, Scott has been charged with at least eight regulatory infractions under the Public Health Act or other legislation.
An Aug. 26 court date has been scheduled, but the case will almost certainly be adjourned to a later date.
Challenge alleges Christopher Scott’s freedom of expression and peaceful gathering rights violated
Chris Scott, owner of the Whistle Stop Cafe, speaks during a rally against measures taken by government and health authorities to curb the spread of COVID-19 at his cafe in Mirror on Saturday. The Whistle Stop was shut down by AHS for not complying with COVID-19 rules. (Photo by The Canadian Press)
PAUL COWLEY
Aug. 12, 2021
Anti-lockdown activist and Mirror café owner Chris Scott is suing the province, arguing his constitutional rights were violated.
The legal action filed last month by Scott’s Calgary lawyer, Chad Williamson, names the province, chief medical officer of health Dr. Deena Hinshaw and Alberta Health Services.
It claims health orders that were issued by the province during the height of the COVID-19 pandemic prevented people from gathering for a political purpose and “is unacceptable in a free and democratic liberal society.”
The lawsuit also claims the order violated sections of the Alberta Bill of Rights.
Whistle Stop cafe owner Scott was arrested at an anti-lockdown rally he helped organize on May 8. In June, he was found guilty of violating an injunction prohibiting the protest. Sentencing is expected to take place on Sept. 13.
Williamson said the constitutional challenge seeks a declaration that any orders issued that prevent political gatherings under the guise of public health are unlawful or invalid.
It’s alleged that since March 2020, Scott has been charged with at least eight regulatory infractions under the Public Health Act or other legislation.
An Aug. 26 court date has been scheduled, but the case will almost certainly be adjourned to a later date.
500 million measurements on the impact of climate change
It is the most comprehensive study of its kind to date. Researchers at the University of Bonn and the University of South-Eastern Norway have studied how two characteristic arctic-alpine plant species respond to global warming. They did this by analyzing almost 500 million of their own readings from the mountainous region of Norway. The analyses show that potential consequences of climate change are extremely dependent on the specific location of the plants and that deciduous species in particular will benefit from warming. The result would be a further increase in the trend toward greening of the arctic-alpine regions. The study is published in the journal Ecosphere.
The Norwegian mountains can be quite inhospitable during the colder months. Nevertheless, there are plants that cope splendidly with the biting temperatures. They include the dwarf birch Betula nana and the black crowberry Empetrum hermaphroditum. Both thrive in arctic-alpine conditions, which makes them typical representatives of tundra vegetation.
Up until now, it has been unclear how the growth of dwarf birch and crowberry is influenced by specific environmental conditions. In the alpine regions of Norway, a project has been underway for 30 years that aims to change that. "We wired up some of the plants here and fitted them with so-called data loggers that record the measurements," explains Prof. Dr. Jörg Löffler from the Department of Geography at the University of Bonn. A pin-like sensor records the diameter of the trunk—minute by minute, 365 days a year, to an accuracy of less than a thousandth of a millimeter. At the same time, the researchers measure solar radiation, temperature in the root zone and just above the soil surface, and soil moisture.
Shrinkage against frost damage
In the current study, researchers analyzed nearly 500 million measurements from 40 plants between 2015 and 2019. "We mainly studied how the microclimate, that is, the conditions encountered by the individual plant, affects its growth," says Svenja Dobbert, who is doing her doctorate in Prof. Löffler's research group. This revealed a striking rhythm in both dwarf birch and crowberry. During the colder months, their trunk diameter shrank significantly in each case—a process that was reversed in the spring. However, it was not until late summer that the deficits were made up to such an extent that actual growth began.
"Due to low temperatures in the colder months, there is hardly any liquid water available for the plants," Dobbert says, explaining the finding. "They also reduce their trunk diameter by actively reducing the water content of their cells to avoid frost damage." Just how important this strategy is for both species to thrive is demonstrated by another observation—plants that shrank very little during the winter often showed little or no growth the following summer.
A second important finding is that he deciduous dwarf birches usually grew better after a mild winter. They therefore seem to generally benefit from warmer winters. With the evergreen crowberries it was the other way around. "In cold winters, there is usually less snowfall," Löffler says. "This could be an advantage for evergreen species because they can then keep up photosynthetic activity for longer and hence enter the growth phase earlier in the spring." It is therefore possible that climate change is causing an increasing spread of deciduous species and a concomitant displacement of evergreen species. Since the leaves of deciduous plants have a comparatively large surface area (in contrast, those of evergreen species are usually needle-like), this effect could contribute to the further greening of arctic-alpine regions.
The microclimate is crucial
"However, our results also show that microclimatic conditions can be extremely different depending on the location," explains Löffler. For instance, at exposed, windy locations, snow cover tends to be very thin. The deciduous dwarf birch however requires a sufficiently thick insulating layer of snow in winter. It then has to use fewer resources to protect itself from frost. Without this warming blanket, the dwarf birch has a difficult time. The evergreen crowberry, in contrast, benefits from the extra sunlight during such snow-free periods. "Overall, our measurements prove that global climate data provide little valid evidence for local vegetation effects," emphasizes the geographer. "Studies like ours can potentially help us better model such complex effects and in turn better predict the effects of climate change on plant life."
Shrubs and soils: A hot topic in the cool tundra
More information: Svenja Dobbert et al, Contrasting growth response of evergreen and deciduous arctic‐alpine shrub species to climate variability, Ecosphere (2021). DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.3688
Journal information: Ecosphere
Provided by University of Bonn
As cargo shipments boom, ship strikes imperil whales in California and worldwide
The 100-foot-long whale dived and circled in the murky, dark waters of the Santa Barbara Channel, looking for a cloud of krill to scoop and catch inside her 20-foot-long jaws.
As the blue whale began to resurface, whale scientist Brandon Southall was in a boat nearby, and he could feel his throat go dry. The whale was coming up right beneath a 200,000-ton transoceanic cargo ship, named the Maladarko, that was heading east from Hong Kong to its destination in Long Beach Harbor.
"We were plotting the two paths," said Southall, a researcher at the University of California, Santa Cruz and the president of an Aptos-based marine biology research firm. "It was a straight collision course."
With the increase of cargo and cruise boat traffic the last several decades, ships have become one of the deadliest threats whales face in open oceans and coastal waters. Ship strikes are not thought to be a predominant cause of the West Coast die-off of gray whales since 2019, but they are a factor, and an increasing concern.
Between 2016 and 2020, at least 1,001 beached or dead whales were identified by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration as having "injuries consistent with ship strikes," said Michael Milstein, a NOAA spokesman, describing an informal death-by-ship database the agency keeps.
Earlier this year, horrific photos of two fin whales pinned to the hull of an Australian naval ship gained worldwide attention. The vessel had been conducting exercises in the waters near San Diego. The two bodies—one 65 feet long, the other just 25 feet—were draped over the hull.
"Anywhere you have major shipping routes and whales in the same place, you are going to see collisions," said Russell Leaper, an expert with the International Whaling Commission. "Unfortunately, that's the situation in many places."
While gray whales and humpbacks make up 70% of the reported strikes in the government's database, it's the endangered and threatened populations—such as North Atlantic right whales and the gargantuan Pacific blues—that concern scientists the most. For those whales, each death comes with a risk of population or species extinction.
Southall and colleagues, including John Calambokidis at Cascadia Research Collective, examined behavioral differences in whales during day and night.
They discovered that whales tend to hang out closer to the surface at night and for longer periods of time. This was especially true for blue whales, making them particularly vulnerable.
Scientists are unsure if the whales are resting during the night or feeding on food sources that move closer to the surface during nighttime hours—when krill-eating seabirds and other marine animals are sidelined. But these behaviors add to the complexities of avoiding collisions through mitigation measures—such as keeping an eye out for whales while on a moving vessel.
"Having a lookout isn't going to help," said Southall, president of Southall Environmental Associates.
What can make a difference, experts agree, is slowing down boat traffic—allowing whales not only the chance to flee, but possibly reducing the potential injury—and altering shipping lanes when whales are present.
Along the U.S. Atlantic Coast, mandatory speed restrictions during certain seasons have helped reduce right whale mortality. Conservation groups are asking the government to extend the regulations to boats smaller than 65 feet, as well as to expand the areas and times for these maximum speed limits.
Others are hoping to create protocols and communications systems that will allow boat captains, mariners and harbor masters to voluntarily reduce speeds and alter routes where whales are present—in real time.
Elliott Hazen, a researcher with NOAA's Southwest Fisheries Science Center in Monterey, has developed an app that works like Google Maps—except instead of navigating cars and harried drivers around Los Angeles, it helps boats avoid concentrations of whales.
Using data collected from satellites on ocean temperature, food distribution and currents, WhaleWatch can predict "whale hot spots" and warn vessels approaching such critical areas—giving boat captains a tool and an extra incentive to slow down, and possibly alter their route.
"It's predictive," said Hazen. "Here's where you are most likely to have concentration of whales."
Voluntary limits can only go so far. All researchers interviewed for this story said mandatory speed restrictions and route alterations are the best way to reduce whale mortality.
"One of the difficulties is that these cargo vessels, they have a small window of time to unload cargo," Hazen added. "If slow speeds are not mandatory, there may be little incentive for them to slow down."
Slower speeds also reduce the amount of fuel needed—making a voyage cheaper—and reduce the amount of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. "Slow speeds are a win for all," said Leaper.
In the case of the leviathan observed in the Santa Barbara Channel, Southall and his colleagues had previously attached temporary trackers, via suction cup, to the female blue whale. The monitors were part of a study they were conducting in 2014 on the behavioral responses of whales to military sonar.
After their experiment was over, they waited around for the trackers to drop off.
"They're expensive devices," said Southall, noting their $20,000 price tag and the need to retrieve them.
They kept a safe distance from this whale, whom they had known since 1987. She had been involved in capsizing a 23-foot private vessel off the coast of Shelter Island near San Diego in 2014.
Suddenly, as they waited, they saw her shoot from the depths straight toward the cargo vessel's trajectory.
"We watched, with our hands over our mouths, thinking, 'Oh, my God, are we gonna see a strike? Or a pool of blood?'" Southall said.
But then she stopped, mid-swim, and rolled to her side, just a few meters below the hull—presumably to eyeball the behemoth cruising over her.
For the next three minutes, she remained suspended below, only resurfacing after the cargo ship passed.
©2021 Los Angeles Times.
Distributed by Tribune Content Agency, LLC.
Humans aren't the only species whose metabolisms tend to slow down with age
If you feel like your metabolism just isn't what it used to be, no matter how many hours you spend in the gym, dolphins can relate.
A Duke University-led study finds that bottlenose dolphins burn calories at a lower rate as they get older, just like we do.
It's the first time scientists have measured an age-related metabolic slowdown in another large-bodied species besides humans, said first author Rebecca Rimbach, postdoctoral associate in evolutionary anthropology at Duke.
Rimbach has studied energy expenditure and other aspects of physiology in animals ranging from mice to monkeys. But data on the inner workings of marine mammals such as dolphins and whales have been scant, she says. That's because these ocean dwellers are notoriously difficult to recapture for repeat measurements.
"It can be very tricky to get the animal back when you need it," Rimbach said.
The researchers studied 10 bottlenose dolphins aged 10 to 45 living at two marine mammal facilities, Dolphin Research Center in Florida and Dolphin Quest in Hawaii.
To measure their average daily metabolic rate, the researchers used the "doubly labeled water method." Used to measure energy expenditure in humans since the 1980s, it's a method that involves getting the animals to drink a few ounces of water with naturally occurring "heavy" forms of hydrogen and oxygen added, and then tracking how long the animals take to flush them out.
Like humans present their arms for a blood draw, the dolphins at these facilities voluntarily raise their tail fins out of the water so their caregivers can collect blood or urine as part of their regular checkups.
By analyzing the levels of heavy hydrogen and oxygen atoms in the blood or urine, the team was able to calculate how much carbon dioxide the dolphins produced each day, and thus how many calories they were burning as they went about their lives.
What they found surprised them.
The researchers expected dolphins to have revved-up metabolisms, since dolphins are warm-blooded just like people, and keeping warm requires more energy in water than in air.
But despite living in a watery world, they found that bottlenose dolphins burn 17% less energy per day than expected for a marine mammal of their size.
The scientists also noted some of the same signs of metabolic aging common in people. The oldest dolphins in the study, both in their 40s, used 22% to 49% fewer calories each day than expected for their body weight. And similar to humans, more of those calories ended up as fat rather than muscle. Dolphins in their 40s had body fat percentages that were 2.5 times higher than their under-20 counterparts.
It wasn't for lack of exercise, Rimbach said. Dolphins are amazing athletes, capable of leaping 10 feet into the air and swimming alongside power boats at speeds that would crush Michael Phelps.
The dolphins in the study were observed doing flips and spins, walking on their tails, jumping clear out of the water and going fast enough to leave a wake as often as six to 18 times an hour, and they remained active into their 40s.
But the metabolic pattern remained no matter what their activity level.
"And it's not because they're eating too much," either, Rimbach said. The researchers recorded how much herring and other fish the dolphins gobbled up, and they found that the older, fatter dolphins in the study actually ate fewer calories.
The researchers say such work could shed light on factors besides diet and lifestyle that underlie age-related weight gain in people.
"Further studies into this commonality we share with dolphins may help us understand why human metabolism slows as we age," said co-author Hannah Salomons, a graduate student in professor Brian Hare's lab at Duke.
"Having access to healthy dolphins under human care made this study possible," said co-author Austin Allen of the Duke University Marine Lab.
"We need more data, especially for younger dolphins, since we only looked at 10 individuals," Rimbach said. "But I think it's an exciting first study."Measuring metabolism in dolphins to calculate their caloric needs
More information: Rebecca Rimbach et al, Total energy expenditure of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) of different ages, Journal of Experimental Biology (2021). DOI: 10.1242/jeb.242218
Journal information: Journal of Experimental Biology
Provided by Duke University
Sex with robots: How should lawmakers respond?
Advancements in technology have resulted in the design of hyper–realistic, Wi-Fi–connected, programmable sex robots that can mimic human responses, but what do these developments mean for how we regulate interactions with "sexbots" in the future
In a new article in the The Bulletin: The Law Society of SA Journal, Flinders University law researchers analyzed the factors Australian lawmakers will have to consider when they weigh up whether it should be legal to import, own and use sexbots that resemble human adults.
Critics argue sex robots objectify women and increase the risk of sexual violence by desensitizing people to the way they treat living beings. Some robots can even be programmed to reject a user's sexual advances which mimic a refusal of consent, which is a key element of proving sexual offenses in Australia.
On the other hand, advocates claim benefits of sex robots can include empowering older Australians and people with disabilities, addressing sexual related anxiety, treating dysfunctions, promoting safe sex and creating a safe place for people who feel insecure about their sexual orientation.
A recent study into the therapeutic benefits of sex robots found the top three suggestions for the use of robots were for patients with: social anxiety (50%), people who do not have a partner but still want a sex life without resorting to fleeting acquaintances or prostitution (50%) and premature ejaculation (47%), according to sex therapists.
Madi McCarthy, now an Associate with law firm LK, recently completed her honors research into this topic with the College of Business, Government & Law. She says advancements in technology, coupled with increasing demand and public concern, means Australian policymakers are likely to be confronted with calls for the regulation of sex robots in the near future.
"Legislators will have to balance competing and complex individual and public interests which pose new ethical, regulatory and legal challenges because of advancements in technology."
"While no Australian legislation currently regulates or prohibits sexual intercourse with robots, there are regulations on child-like sex dolls which have been addressed by the Commonwealth, South Australia and Queensland. These statutory provisions may guide any future laws on the use of adult sex robots but there are new factors which have to be considered."
Associate Professor Tania Leiman, Dean of Law at Flinders University, says sex robots challenge existing conceptions of how humans interact with emerging technologies in the most intimate way so regulators will have to balance ethical questions, legal challenges and the real potential for technology to objectify and promote sexual violence.
"Even if sex robots are prohibited in Australia—it's likely that the courts may consider such offenses to be less objectively serious than sexual offenses against humans, and sentences may be more likely to fall at the lower end of the penalty range, even where maximum penalties are equivalent."
"For example, courts have consistently imposed lower end sentences for child-like sex doll offenses despite the maximum penalty range of 10 to 15 years."Design and market sexbots for older adults with disabilities, argues ethicist
More information: issuu.com/lawsocietysa/docs/ls … ?fr=sMWZhNjM5Mzk0NTE
Provided by Flinders University
Raccoon dogs pose a particular threat to ground-nesting birds in Northern Europe
Duck species in Finland are faring poorly, with more than half of the species listed as threatened to a varying degree, with alien predators as one of the suspected causes.
A new study proves the suspicions well-founded. In experiments carried out over three years by the University of Helsinki, Finland and Aarhus University, Denmark, wildlife cameras recorded an abundance of images of alien species predating artificial nests established by the researchers in Finland and Denmark.
More than 400 artificial nests containing farmed mallard eggs were created, of which roughly 290 were located around southern Finland. The nests were built in natural duck nesting environments.
In Finland, raccoon dogs (Nyctereutes procyonoides) were more common nest predators than red foxes, although in Denmark the situation was reversed, possibly reflecting the species' local relative abundance.
"The raccoon dog was the most common mammalian predator in all of the environments studied in Finland. As expected, raccoon dogs destroyed nests on shorelines, but surprisingly often also in forests close to wetlands," says Postdoctoral Researcher Sari Holopainen from the Finnish Museum of Natural History Luomus, University of Helsinki.
Broken eggs attract mammalian predators
Wildlife cameras revealed that many nests were visited by more than one predator. Corvids were often the first to notice the nests. On occasion, they would break an egg in the nest, which would attract mammalian predators to the spot. American minks and raccoon dogs often visited nests previously predated by others.
"Our research shows that predators cohabiting the same area can benefit from one another. Eggs broken by corvids offer a clue to mammalian predators, which, in turn, are a threat to both eggs and female ducks. In other words, the effect of a diverse predator community can exceed the sum of its species," Holopainen says.
The raccoon dog is a genuine habitat generalist
In terms of utilizing their environment, the raccoon dog was found in many ways to be more versatile than native species. The species was commonly observed on shorelines and shore forests, and it was flexible also with regard to agricultural and urban landscapes, whereas the presence of individual native mammal predators was restricted by habitat type. In addition, raccoon dogs were found to be an adaptive part of the predator community, as it was either the only species or a part of a community, rich in species that visited nests during the week-long observation period.
According to the researchers, the artificial nest experiments cannot directly prove that the raccoon dog has an effect on duck populations."What the results do show, however, is that the raccoon dog is a more common nest predator than native mammalian species, and that it is abundant in a range of duck nesting environments," Holopainen explains.
Several reasons for the decline of waterbird populations
In addition to alien predators, the decline of waterbird populations is caused by several factors, of which many are related to excessive eutrophication. However, the results of the artificial nest experiments help to understand the reasons for declining waterbird populations.
"The decline of many waterbird nesting populations, especially in eutrophic lakes, matches temporally the increasing abundance of raccoon dogs and American minks. This came out as we studied long-term changes in aquatic birdlife between the periods 1951–1970 and 1996–2015 using datasets collected in the Häme region by Pentti Linkola, the late fisherman," says Hannu Pöysä, a principal scientist at the Natural Resources Institute Finland.
The datasets provided a unique opportunity to assess, among other things, the role of alien predators in the decline of waterbird populations, since the data from 1951–1970 depicted a period of time when the raccoon dog and the American mink were few in number in Finnish nature.
The raccoon dog in Finland
The raccoon dog is a species indigenous to South-East Asia that was introduced as a fur animal in areas of the Soviet Union close to Europe from the 1920s onwards. From there, the species has spread to the continent, gaining ground thanks to its capacity to travel long distances. The longest migration observed using a GPS collar occurred in early 2016 when a raccoon dog made a 600-kilometer journey.
In Finland, the first raccoon dogs arrived as early as the 1930s. While the regional population is especially dense in southern Finland, the species is also able to live in Lapland. In fact, a relentless battle is being fought on the border between Finland and Sweden to prevent the species from spreading to the latter country.
In Finland, the number of culled raccoon dogs has grown steadily. In the early 1980s, the annual number of slain raccoon dogs was roughly 20,000. In the peak year of 2016, that number had increased tenfold. Indeed, the raccoon dog is Finland's second/third most common prey animal. Additionally, more than 20,000 raccoon dogs are estimated to be killed by road traffic each year.
In 2019, the EU added the raccoon dog to the list of harmful invasive alien species. One of the reasons for this was its impact on avian and amphibian species. The raccoon dog can carry and spread a number of diseases, including rabies, echinococcosis, mange and trichinellosis.Raccoons and raccoon dogs are expected to expand their ranges in Europe
More information: Sari Holopainen et al, Do alien predators pose a particular risk to duck nests in Northern Europe? Results from an artificial nest experiment, Biological Invasions (2021). DOI: 10.1007/s10530-021-02608-
Journal information: Biological Invasions
Provided by University of Helsinki
Football without the fans: New study reveals effect of empty stadiums during pandemic
Playing professional football games in empty stadiums had a hugely negative effect on the success of home teams, with home advantage almost halved, new research shows.
The new study, by the University of Leeds and Northumbria University, used the unique opportunity presented by the COVID-19 pandemic to test whether home advantage applies when fans are not present in the stands. Home advantage describes the benefit a sports team playing attheir own venue is said to enjoy over the visiting team. This could be attributed to the effect of fans on the players or referee; playing in familiar surroundings and the effects of travel on the visiting team.
Researchers used data from Football-Data.co.uk and the FiveThirtyEight online database to assess at 4,844 games across 11 countries, including the England Premier League and Championship, Germany Bundesliga 1 and 2, Spanish La Liga 1 and 2, Italian Serie A and B, Portuguese Primeira Liga, Greek Super League, Turkish Super Lig, Austrian Bundesliga, Danish Superligaen, Russian Premier League and Swiss Super League.
They found that home teams accrued significantly fewer points and scored fewer goals when crowds were absent.
The researchers found, on average:
- With fans present, teams won 0.39 points more per game at home than away
- With fans absent, the advantage was almost halved when teams won only 0.22 points more at home than away
- With fans present, home teams scored 0.29 goals more per game than away teams
- With fans absent, home teams scored just 0.15 goals more than the visitors.
Furthermore, the lack of crowds affected how referees judged fouls against home and away sides.
The data showed:
- Referees gave more fouls against the home team in empty stadiums
- Referees gave a similar number of fouls against the away team in empty stadiums
- Referees gave far fewer yellow cards against away teams in empty stadiums
- Referees gave similar numbers of yellow cards against the home team in empty stadiums—even though they fouled more
- Red cards followed a similar pattern which was less pronounced, yet still significant
Lead author Dane McCarrick, from the University of Leeds' School of Psychology, said that "COVID-19 forced football at all levels to an unexpected halt just a quarter of the way through the 2019/2020 season."
"When it returned, the remainder of the games took place behind closed doors with no fans present. This provided an unintentional, and unique, opportunity to examine one of the most talked about and empirically studied phenomena in professional team sport: the home advantage."
"This new knowledge reveals that in the most basic sense, fans attendance matters."
Dominant play
Previous studies into home advantage have considered how goals scored and points awarded at home games compared with performance at away matches.
This study is the first to consider whether home advantage affects a team's dominance over a game.
The researchers measured dominance by the number of corners, shots and shots on target they had in any given match.
The study showed home teams were less dominant without their supportive fans, with an average per game of 0.7 fewer corners won, 1.3 fewer shot attempts and 0.4 fewer shots on target.
But the findings suggested that the lack of crowds made very little difference to away teams' attacking hold on games, with only 0.10 more corners, 0.17 more shots, and 0.20 more shots on target.
And the researchers discovered that teams' dominance had a much greater influence over referees' decisions than the presence of home fans.
Mr McCarrick said: "When a team's dominance over the game was included in the analysis, the associations were much weakened for fouls and yellow cards and, remarkably, become non-significant for red cards. This shows, for the first time, that the influence of home fans on referees mostly disappears when the style of play is taken into account."
Dr. Sandy Wolfson, a sport and exercise psychologist from Northumbria University's Department of Psychology, worked with Dane on this study. Dr. Wolfson has undertaken extensive research exploring the psychological aspects of football for players, referees and fans, working with Premier League clubs and the Football Association. She said that "this is a really important investigation that contributes to the long-standing debate on the main reasons for the home advantage in sport—a worldwide phenomenon affecting team sports at all levels, from recreational to elite."
"Home advantage during the COVID-19 pandemic: Analyses of European football leagues" is published in the September issue of Psychology of Sport and Exercise. The online version of the paper is peer reviewed.Soccer returns in empty stadiums: Research shows home advantage disappears
More information: Dane McCarrick et al, Home advantage during the COVID-19 pandemic: Analyses of European football leagues, Psychology of Sport and Exercise (2021). DOI: 10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102013
Provided by University of Leeds
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