Sikhs’ Sixth Guru Hargobind Ji’s Doctrine Of Miri-Piri: Champion Of Justice And Equality – OpEd

Sikh Guru Hargobind Ji. Credit: Unknown author, Wikipedia Commons

 November 1, 2024  

By Dr. Bawa Singh

Guru Hargobind Ji, the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, introduced a transformative vision to Sikhism that fortified its foundations in the face of tyranny and injustice.

Being the son of Guru Arjan Dev Ji, the first martyr in Sikh history, Guru Hargobind was profoundly influenced by a pressing imperative to safeguard Sikh community and uphold the fundamental principles of Sikhism, which include compassion, equality and justice. Guru Hargobind Ji established a robust Sikh identity through his principles, policies, and institutions, enabling it to endure oppression while championing dignity and human rights.

Sikhism: Foundational Tenets

Sikhism represents a significant spiritual and philosophical traditions which were originated in Punjab within the Indian subcontinent in the late 15th century. Sikhism, a faith that has arisen in comparatively modern times among the world’s principal religions, is remarkable for having attracted a global following of around 25 to 30 million adherents. The Sikh faith originates from the profound teachings of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the first of the ten Sikh gurus, whose insights were further developed by his revered successors. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, declared the  Guru Granth Sahib to be the eternal guru, thus bringing an end to the succession of human gurus and establishing the scripture as the supreme religious text for the Sikh community. 

Sikhism emerged within a milieu characterized by significant religious persecution, particularly during the Mughal era, a period that saw the martyrdom of like Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur. The events previously mentioned acted as a significant impetus for the formation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, a revered congregation of “saint-soldiers” dedicated to the honorable mission of protecting religious liberty and the integrity of faith. The deep and complex tenets and rituals of Sikhism act as a wellspring of motivation and collective harmony for its followers. 

The Sikh traditions posit that God is formless yet accessible; defined by fearlessness, free from adversaries, self-originating, and transcending the limitations of birth and time. The esteemed scripture, referred to as Sri Guru Granth Sahib, articulates the intricate essence of the Divine with remarkable profundity. This fundamental conviction in a singular God inherently leads to the essential principle of equality among all people, surpassing differences in race, religion, gender, and social status. Proponents of Sikhism assert that every person holds equal value in the eyes of the God; this sacred doctrine champions the equality of genders, the affluent and the impoverished, and the rights of individuals irrespective of racial distinctions. Thus, it is a fundamental principle of Sikhism that individuals from various faith traditions can achieve a connection with the Divine, as long as they sincerely follow the true path of their own beliefs. 

The essential principles of Sikhism, as expressed in the revered Guru Granth Sahib, include a deep reverence for the One Creator (Ik Onkar), the intrinsic unity and equality of all people, the dedication to selfless service (Sevā), the steadfast quest for justice (Sarbat Da Bhala—the well-being of all), and a strong adherence to integrity in personal behavior. Sikhism upholds the principle of equality among all individuals, irrespective of their background or social standing. This message was imparted by all Gurus, who championed a society devoid of caste distinctions, where no individual held superiority over another and where the rights of others were to be respected and safeguarded. The Sikh Gurus championed the rights of every individual, irrespective of their religion, caste, gender, or race. They upheld the principle of liberty for everyone to exist unencumbered by excessive interference or limitations. 

The relationship between the Sikhs and the Mughals experienced a significant transformation in 1606, marked by the martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev Ji. The execution of the fifth Guru Arjan Dev, by Emperor Jahangir during his reign (1605-1627), signified the onset of a period characterized by the persecution of Sikhs, whose beliefs posed a challenge to the prevailing religious bigotry  of the Empire. Guru Hargobind Ji was deeply influenced by the tragic martyrdom of Guru Arjun Dev Ji, which motivated him to adopt a proactive stance that transformed the community’s view on oppression. A notable shift from the nonviolent approaches of his predecessors, Guru Hargobind emphasized the importance of armed resistance upon recognizing that mere moral courage could not adequately protect the community. This adaptable approach not only safeguarded Sikhism but also positioned the community as a formidable defender of human rights and justice. This tradition was further reinforced by Guru Teg Bahadur, who gave his life to protect the Kashmiri Pundits from the persecution imposed by the Mughal regime. 

The Sikh Gurus bequeathed a profound legacy to the followers, urging them to maintain elevated moral standards and to embrace personal sacrifice in the defense and preservation of these noble principles. Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and Guru Gobind Singh exemplify this principle remarkably who sacrificed for the larger interest of the followers. These sacrifices/martyrdoms exemplified the Sikhs’ capacity to confront oppression and tyranny with steadfast and resolute determination.

Guru Hargobind Sahib: Early Life 

Guru Hargobind, born in Gurū kī Waḍālī on June 19, 1595, was the sole offspring of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs. Guru Hargobind was instructed in religious teachings by Bhai Gurdas and honed his skills in military swordsmanship and archery under the guidance of Baba Budda. During his formative years, he was deeply immersed in the hymns resonating within the  Harmandir Sahib complex in Amritsar. On 25 May 1606, the fifth Guru, Arjan, designated his son Hargobind as his successor, instructing him to establish a military tradition aimed at safeguarding the Sikh religion and its adherents. On the 30  May, 1606, he faced arrest, endured torture, and ultimately met his demise at the hands of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. The succession ceremony of Guru Hargobind took place on 24 June, 1606, during which he donned two swords symbolizing his spiritual and temporal authority. 

Relations Between Sikh Gurus and Mughals 

The spiritual and socio-political impact of the Sikh religion in Mughal India transformed the dynamics between the Sikh Gurus and the Mughals, shifting it from a state of coexistence to one of conflicted ones. Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, advocated for peace and spirituality while maintaining a stance of non-opposition towards Mughal governance. He stood against injustice, as evidenced by his reaction to Babur’s invasions. Given that Sikhism emerged as a devotional movement, Emperor Akbar exhibited a degree of tolerance towards its followers. The early Sikh Gurus successfully nurtured their community and identity within the framework of Akbar’s pluralistic approach. The circumstances underwent a significant transformation during the reign of Jahangir. Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru, ardently supported Prince Khusrau and steadfastly declined to alter Sikh scripture, a stance that ultimately culminated in his martyrdom. Following his martyrdom, Sikhism adopted a defensive stance in response to Mughal oppression. Guru Hargobind, the successor of Guru Arjan, adeptly intertwined spiritual guidance with a stance of political defiance. He urged Sikhs to take up arms for self-defense, confronting Mughal forces and solidifying the Sikh community as both a religious and political entity. 

Guru Tegh Bahadur and his contemporaries opposed Mughal authority, particularly in response to Aurangzeb’s coercive conversion efforts. The execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur stands as a poignant testament to the Sikh commitment to religious freedom and the resistance against tyranny, particularly in his defense of Hindu rights. His martyrdom fortified the Sikhs’ determination to withstand persecution and uphold their autonomy. 

The 10th Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, a brotherhood of warriors committed to upholding justice and faith, thereby militarizing the Sikhs. The Khalsa valiantly resisted Mughal oppression through direct confrontations. The rebellion led by Banda Singh Bahadur established Sikh governance in Punjab, thereby laying the foundation for the Sikh Empire. The resilience of Guru Gobind Singh served as a profound source of inspiration. The interactions between Sikhs and Mughals significantly influenced Sikhism, establishing it as a movement characterized by justice, bravery, and self-determination, while simultaneously crafting the Sikh identity through spiritual practices and a steadfast opposition to injustice. 

Guru Hargobind Sahib’s -Doctrine of Miri-Piri

Guru Hargobind Ji’s introduction of the concept of two swords (Miri-Piri) concept established the foundation of his leadership, providing a dual mandate that balanced temporal power with spiritual responsibilities. By wearing two swords, one representing Miri (temporal power) and the other Piri (spiritual authority), Guru Hargobind sent a clear message to both Sikhs and the ruling Mughals: spiritual principles alone were insufficient in a world that ignored moral persuasion and allowed oppression to thrive. Instead, a full and just life necessitated both spiritual discipline and a willingness to defend oneself and others. Guru Hargobind Ji instilled in Sikhs a sense of moral duty through Miri-Piri, teaching them that self-defense and protecting others were sacred responsibilities rather than acts of aggression. This vision inspired Sikhs to become Saint-Soldiers, people who combined spiritual knowledge and martial discipline. This dual role strengthened the Sikh community’s resistance to tyranny and provided an alternative social model in which spiritual progress coincided with active participation in worldly affairs.

In 1606, Guru Hargobind Ji founded the  Akal Takht, or the “Throne of the Timeless One,” opposite the  Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar. The Akal Takht emerged as the inaugural seat of sovereign, independent temporal authority in Sikhism, enabling the Guru to resolve temporal matters and issue hukamnamas (directives) for the Sikh followers. The Akal Takht, by creating an institution free from Mughal influence, emerged as a center for Sikh autonomy, representing a distinctive fusion of spiritual leadership and secular authority.

The Akal Takht exemplified Guru Hargobind Ji’s profound dedication to justice, liberty, and equality. He convened councils, rendered legal judgments, and guided Sikhs in social and military affairs. By aligning Sikh leadership with principles of justice and moral authority, the Akal Takht emerged as a symbol of resistance against oppression. The enduring significance of the Akal Takht in Sikhism highlights the persistent legacy of Guru Hargobind’s principles, positioning it as a bastion for the advocacy of the oppressed and marginalized.

The legacy of Guru Hargobind Ji as a champion of human rights and dignity is evident in his unwavering resistance to Mughal despotism. Throughout his tenure as Guru, he faced numerous Mughal assaults and invasions. Instead of yielding to oppression, Guru Hargobind organized and trained a military contingent, enabling the community to protect itself. This decision established a precedent for resistance against oppression, positioning the Sikh community as a potent symbol of resilience for other marginalized groups under Mughal rule.

Guru Hargobind conveyed that the struggle for justice and dignity is universal. He directed his adherents to perceive self-defense as an obligation rather than an individual entitlement. By fostering an ethos of seva (selfless service) within the Sikh community, he guaranteed that armed defense was utilized solely to protect the vulnerable and uphold justice, rather than for personal advantage. His actions reverberated among other marginalized groups throughout India, galvanizing a unified opposition to the Mughal Empire’s religious intolerance and political despotism. 

Guru Hargobind Ji’s notable act of liberation involved the release of 52 Hindu kings from Gwalior Fort, an event now observed as Bandi Chhor Divas. Guru Hargobind’s spiritual influence was further intensified when he conditioned his release with the liberation of 52 kings who had been unjustly imprisoned by Emperor Jahangir with him. Bandi Chhor Divas is a lasting testament to Guru Hargobind’s commitment for the protection of justice and human rights. His actions went beyond personal liberation, emphasizing his dedication to liberation of others from the shackles of oppression. The Sikh tenets of universal brotherhood and the Guru’s doctrine of equality and justice were exemplified by this demonstration of moral fortitude and compassion. Bandi Chhor Divas is now observed not only as a Sikh festival, but also as a symbol of the triumph of truth over oppression, justice, and resistance. 

Vision of an Egalitarian Society

In addition to his political and military endeavors, Guru Hargobind Ji pursued the traditions of establishment of langars community kitchens), where individuals from all castes and social standings shared meals. His focus on selfless service underscored the significance of altruism in enhancing societal welfare and guaranteeing equitable resource distribution. The egalitarian principles espoused by Guru Hargobind Ji stood in sharp opposition to the social hierarchies upheld by the ruling elite. Through the cultivation of a society that granted respect and dignity to every individual, he confronted the dominant conventions of his era and established the groundwork for a community rooted in equality, compassion, and solidarity. This embrace of diversity is fundamental to Sikh identity, emphasizing the belief that spirituality is deeply connected to social responsibility and the protection of human rights.

The life and leadership of Guru Hargobind Ji catalyzed a transformation within Sikhism, evolving it from a spiritual community into a vigorous advocate for justice. The introduction of Miri-Piri transformed the Sikh identity, inspiring Sikhs to seek both spiritual enlightenment and active participation in worldly matters. This dual function fortified the community’s determination, empowering it to withstand oppression and safeguard the marginalized. The Guru’s focus on self-defense as a revered obligation, coupled with his founding of the  Akal Takht, equipped Sikhs with the necessary institutional and ideological structures to uphold their resistance against oppression. The policies he implemented had a significant impact on later Sikh Gurus, especially Guru Gobind Singh Ji, who codified the Sikh martial tradition through the creation of the Khalsa. The principles imparted by Guru Hargobind to his disciples remain relevant, inspiring Sikhs across the globe to exemplify compassion, bravery, and fortitude.

Conclusion

The profound leadership of Guru Hargobind Ji remains a guiding force in the Sikh tradition, fostering a deep dedication to justice, equality, and the protection of human rights. Through the promotion of a harmonious existence characterized by Miri-Piri, the defense of human dignity, and the advancement of egalitarian principles, he established the groundwork for a robust Sikh community ready to face oppression in its various manifestations. His teachings serve as a reminder that spirituality is an active endeavor, intricately linked to the principles of justice and compassion in our engagement with the world. The legacy of Guru Hargobind as a champion of freedom, advocate for social change, and protector of rights surpasses his era, providing an enduring framework for addressing injustice and promoting a society that embraces inclusivity. In a society that persistently confronts challenges of injustice and disparity, the life and teachings of Guru Hargobind serve as a profound reminder of the lasting significance of bravery, empathy, and an unwavering dedication to the dignity of all individuals.

Dr. Bawa Singh

Prof. (Dr.) Bawa Singh has been teaching at the Department of South and Central Asian Studies, School of International Studies, Central University of Punjab. He holds a Ph.D. in Political Science from Panjab University. He has extensive teaching and research experiences and has held various academic roles. Prof. Singh has held key administrative positions, including Head of the Department and Dean of the School of International Studies. His research interests include the geopolitics of South and Central Asia, Indian foreign policy, regional cooperation, and global health diplomacy. He has led significant research projects, including an ICSSR-funded study on SAARC's geostrategic and geo-economic role. Singh has published 61 papers, 15 book chapters, 100 commentaries, and two books published by Routledge and Springer Nature.

 

The Origin Of Polytheism And Monotheism – OpEd

 November 3, 2024

By Rabbi Allen S. Maller

Dogs are pack hunter wolves that became Homo sapiens best friends. The wild dogs in Africa are pack hunters whose packs must out number their enemies by 3 to 1, because their enemies are always bigger then they are, if they are to survive. Homo sapiens needed weapons and bands of larger and larger groups to survive. Over the last hundred thousand years, religion evolved to make small bands into ever larger tribes.    

As Torah tells us: ” God blessed them and said to them, “Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the earth and subdue it. Rule over the fish in the sea; the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the ground.”  (Genesis 1:28)

Since the time of Aristotle philosophers have thought that mankind’s ability to use tools was what made humans unique. However, we now know that many different species (including birds) use tools, and Chimps not only use tools but also make at least three different kinds of tools for different functions.

So if tool making, culture, self awareness and language do not distinguish humans from our nearest primate relatives, what makes humans what we are? I offer human religious spirituality as an answer.

For almost all of the last 200,000 years Homo Sapiens were small group, hierarchically organized, social primates. Although biological evolution occurs in individuals, any genes that enable the group (extended family and/or band) to function better as a group, will contribute to individual survival rates and reproductive success within the group.  

If one takes seriously the Torah’s claim that humanity was created in the Divine image, or the Qur’an statement that humans were created to be vice-regents with God, spiritual evolution testifies to the creation of creatures who are social co-creators of purpose driven non-material responses to environmental and social challenges. 

Among the earliest Gods were birth Goddesses. Small stone figures of very pregnant birth Goddesses often referred to as “Venus” figures go back 30-35,000 years. They are the first examples of iconic religion. The worship of spirits within natural phenomena does not need iconic representation. But birth rarely took place in the open or in public. 

The birth Goddess needed to be present in some tangible way in order to ease the anxiety of women in labor. Even today in some African countries the maternal mortality rate is 3% per birth. A woman who gave birth to 8 children had a one in four chance of dying from giving birth. Any band would benefit even if the presence of Goddesses reduced that mortality rate by only 5%. Carvings in wood of birth Goddesses probably preceded stone statues by many millennia and may have originated 50-100,000 years ago. 

The biblical term for food offerings is korban. The verb l’karayv means to draw near or come close. A korban is a way to attach, engage or bind the human realm to the spirit realm. When food and drink are offered to another it is not a sacrifice. Food and liquid offerings are an invitation to a closer relationship. 

Especially during ceremonial occasions food and drink serve to bring people together, including those who have been estranged from one another because of transgressions that have occurred. Thus offerings to the Gods can help people who feel estranged from God return to a closer (karayv) relationship. The food offered to a God is usually eaten wholly or in part by those who contribute it or by the priests who offer it. 

God doesn’t want grain or meat offerings (Psalm 40:7). Humans offer them, especially when they feel estranged from the Divine, in order to draw closer (karayv) to the Divine. Only the sacrifice of human beings should be called sacrifice. While human sacrifice was widespread in the past it was usually relatively rare.

Ritual specialists, who unlike charismatic Shamans are more likely to be administrator types, usually direct these offerings. As time goes on the rites tend to get more complex and the necessary skills require more training. Those people performing the complex rites easily become a hereditary cast of professional priests. 

They sometimes also offer an alternative type of leadership to that of the hunter/warrior types. Priests can become the custodians of the customary law of the tribe. Priests can offer advice to help in making important decisions by consulting the gods to determine their will. 

Fortune telling enables decision-makers to avoid the backlash of wrong decisions while claiming credit for the good ones. Divination also reduces many people’s anxiety about difficult decisions in unclear situations. Even today millions of Americans still consult astrology charts and in Asia people in Buddhist temples still cast their fortunes. 

Small groups that lack an incest taboo will be plagued by the ills of inbreeding; therefore exogamy in mating will be selected for. As ancestor worship strengthens kinship ties over more and more generations, it also expands kinship ties over more nomadic bands creating larger clans and tribes. These clans and tribes must gather periodically at a special place to exchange future mates. 

They also started exchanging i.e. trading for desirable objects not found in their usual locale. Seashells, obsidian, red ocher and other materials have been found in campsites and graves more than 100-200 miles away from their closest source. The stronger the attraction of a special place, the greater the effort that distant clans will make to attend, so gathering spots that are turned into sacred sites of pilgrimage through special seasonal rites will enrich human communities both socially and economically. There are scholars who think that mankind’s advanced trade networks helped them out compete Homo Neanderthals in Europe (recent studies of Neanderthal DNA show that they were a distinct species not ancestral to us). 

The need for all the clans to show up about the same time leads to fixed seasonal holy days and religious calendars. The need to mark time for pilgrimage festivals led people to study the cycle of the moon and the movement of the constellations and thus move some of the spirit powers into the sky.

Recent brain studies have shown how biologically organic trust and sharing are to human minds. Activities that build group loyalty and interpersonal trust enhance individual survival and promote individual spirituality much more than cognitive beliefs and ideologies. But urbanization, writing and mass communications may be changing this. Written revelation introduced a tremendous force expanding the power of religion both in space and time.  

The development of a class of religious scholars who study sacred scriptures and attempt to spread the sacred teachings among the people only happens when a religion has a “book”. The impact of religions with written revelations on historic human culture is comparable to the impact of modern science and invention on 20th century lifestyles. Both together will make the 21st century a turning point in human destiny.

What role does God (the One God of the revealed religions) play in all this? According to Genesis 4:26 humans only began to call upon the name of the One Lord in the days of Adam and Enosh. That means that the generations prior to Adam and Enosh evolved religion naturally. Only with the rise of scriptural revelations did the One God enter into human consciousness. Or it could mean that human consciousness had risen to the level of being able to receive Divine communication from the One God. It took over 3,000 years for monotheism to spread world-wide even with scriptural revelations so it is not surprising that it took over a 100,000 years to get to humans ready to receive Divine revelations.  

Spirituality among Homo Sapiens has been evolving for at least 100-150,000 years. The idea that reason, socialism or modern science would replace spiritual and religious thinking has turned out to be a wish fulfillment fantasy of some people, many of whom bear a grudge against religion and spirituality. Religious rituals and ideas are ubiquitous among humans and continue to evolve as the creative intelligent minds of Homo Sapiens encounter changes in their environment. This will most likely continue as long as we have creative intelligent minds.

But the thousands of years of human created polytheism made it very hard for God’s prophets to establish ongoing imageless monotheistic communities. For thousands of years after Prophet Adam and before Prophet Abraham, Allah sent thousands of prophets to thousands of tribes and nations on the earth, and not one of them were able to establish an ongoing imageless monotheistic community. So Allah decided to do things in a different way.

Allah decided to make a covenant with a small tribe, and send 600 of his prophets to this small tribe; and work continually for many centuries with the people of this tribe until they were able to establish an ongoing community that would always have a large core of righteous and loyal believers. 

Allah selected Abraham the Hebrew (Genesis 14:13) and the descendants of Prophets Ishmael, Issac, and Jacob to become the first, but not the last monotheistic community. “There is for you an excellent example (to follow) in Abraham and those with him.” [Qur’an 60:4] and “Indeed Ibrahim was a nation obedient to Allah, a Hanif, he was not one of the polytheists.” [Qur’an 16:120].

As Prophet Isaiah said: “Listen to me, you who pursue righteousness, you who seek the Lord: look to the rock from which you were hewn, and to the quarry from which you were dug. Look to Abraham your father and to Sarah who bore you; for he [Abraham] was only one when I called him, that I might bless him and multiply him. (Isaiah 51:1-2) and as the Qur’an states:”Follow the way of Abraham as people of pure faith.” (3:95)

Finally, if one believes that God inspired prophets are able to describe scenarios of various developments in the distant future then one has to accept that the understanding of these passages should change and improve as we come closer and closer to the times they describe. As an example, Jeremiah describes a radical future in which women surround men, “The Lord will create a new thing on earth-a woman will surround a man” (31:22). 

The great commentator Rashi understands ‘surround’ to mean encircle. The most radical thing Rashi can think of (and in 11th century France it was radical) is that a woman will propose marriage (a wedding ring/circle) to men. In today’s feminist generation we can see women surrounding men in fields once almost exclusively male such as law, medical and rabbinical schools. Indeed women are now outperforming men in education in 70% of countries worldwide. 

Of course, this means that a few generations from now we might have even better understandings of some predictive passages in the prophets so humility should always be within us.

Rabbi Allen S. Maller
Allen Maller retired in 2006 after 39 years as Rabbi of Temple Akiba in Culver City, Calif. He is the author of an introduction to Jewish mysticism. God. Sex and Kabbalah and editor of the Tikun series of High Holy Day prayerbooks.

Ruthless Settlements: BHP, Brazil And The Samarco Fundão Dam Class Action – OpEd

 November 5, 2024  

By Binoy Kampmark

The BHP Group, as with other mining giants, has much explaining to do in the way it has approached the environment.  It has become a master of the greenwashing experiment, an adept promoter of sham environmental responsibility (take, for instance, its practice of merely selling its oil and gas business to Woodside Petroleum in 2021 rather than retiring them); and, it transpired recently, a ruthless negotiator and litigant over contentious claims. 

After nine years of negotiations and attritive legal proceedings, BHP has reached a settlement with Brazilian authorities regarding its role in the Fundão tailings dam collapse in Mariana, Minas Gerais.  Taking place on November 5, 2015, the results were catastrophic to human life and nature, leaving 19 people dead and spilling toxic sludge over some 700 kilometres of land.  The Samarco-owned facility, which held something like 26,000 Olympic-sized swimming pools’ worth of tailings (50 million cubic metres), was a joint venture between BHP and Vale.  In addition to killing 14 company employees and five residents, the released tailings rapidly reached Bento Rodrigues, and part of the communities of Paracatu de Baixo and Gesteira and, for good measure, flooded the centre of the town of Barra Longa.  

The catastrophe merely compounded, turning the Rio Doce Basin a filthy brown and affecting dozens of municipalities and hundreds of communities reliant on the Rio Doce for drinking water.  The pollution also destroyed wildlife, fishing stocks, farmland and churches, and affected various Indigenous communities, including the Krenak, Tupiniquim, Guaranis and Quilombola.

In response to the collapse, BHP, Vale and Samarco established the Renova Foundation, intended to compensate individuals and small businesses for losses and ostensibly ameliorating environmental impacts.  This was hardly a concession on BHP’s part of guilt.  “Conveniently,” write the authors caustically in a Nature Conservation study on the disaster in August, “the company creates its foundation to repair its own damages. Through the dense patchwork of multiple lawsuits filed in Brazil, Australia, the United States and the United Kingdom, BHP has repeatedly denied any central culpability in the collapse.  

Compensation payments to victims from the fund, to date, have also been scandalously tardy.  The BHP 2024 annual report notes that R$17.5 billion (US$3.5 billion) had been paid to 430,000 people as of June 30 this year, with R$12.2 billion (US$2.5 billion) forked out to 110,000 people under the Novel system, or “court mandated simplified indemnity system”.  The company praises this arrangement as one that enabled “informal workers” (cart drivers, sand miners, artisanal miners and street vendors) to receive compensation despite having “difficulty proving the damages they suffered”.  

What BHP fails to underscore is that those under the Novel system had to wait for seven years after the dam collapse to receive any cash, with 40% of those only paid in the last two years.  Of the 430,000, some 290,000 received a pitiful R$1050 each for a disruption to their water supply for seven to 10 days following the dam collapse.  And just to add to the nastiness of it all, the replacement housing for victims has been of questionable quality.  Little wonder that Thatiele Monic, president of the Vila Santa Efigênia and Adjacências Quilombola Association, is suspicious of the efforts of the Renova Foundation.

The UK leg of proceedings, commenced in November 2018, is positively Dickensian in legal gyrations.  It began as a High Court lawsuit against BHP involving 240,000 plaintiffs, including Brazilian municipalities and Krenak indigenous communities.  In November 2020, the court dismissed the lawsuit, with Justice Turner making a memorable remark: “The task facing the managing judge in England would, I predict, be akin to trying to build a house of cards in a wind tunnel.” Various impediments, not least the size and scale of the claims, including “jurisdictional cross-contamination” and an abuse of process, were cited.  

In March 2021, the Court of Appeal affirmed the decision, arguing that the plaintiffs were already seeking legal redress in Brazil.  In July, the London court of appeal reversed the decision, granting permission to appeal on grounds that the case had a “real prospect of success”.  To not do so would risk real injustice.  In July 2022, a Court of Appeal ruled that English courts could hear the case, noting that, “The vast majority of claimants who have recovered damages have only received very modest sums in respect of moral damages for interruption to their water supply”.  An April 2024 date was set for the commencement of trial proceedings.

In March 2023, the scale of the class action burgeoned further, with the addition of 500,000 claimants.  Attempts by BHP to delay the lawsuit till mid-2025 were rejected by a London court in May 2023.  On October 21 this year, the trial finally commenced.  It would last all but a few days.

The settlement agreement signed on October 25 includes BHP, Vale, Samarco and some half a dozen Brazilian authorities.  Of the 42 civil claims against BHP, the October 25 agreement covers the most monumental and contentious.  Its value – R$170 billion (US$31.5 billion) – is deceptive.  Brazilian authorities can have reason to cheer the result, as it comes close to the R$175 billion sought in civil claims in 2016.  BHP’s Chief Executive Officer, Mike Henry, also seemed suspiciously satisfied, claiming that the agreement would deliver a laundry list of benefits including “expanded and additional programs for the environment and for the people, including designated funding for the health system, economic recovery, improved infrastructure and extensive compensation and income support measures, including for farmers, fisher people and Indigenous and Traditional communities.”

A sharp analysis from Tony Boyd of the Australian Financial Review, hardly a forum known for its humanitarians and bleeding hearts, offers a rather different reading of Brazilian efforts and the tactics employed by the mining giants.  It was evident to Boyd “that over the past decade, BHP and Vale have outplayed the Brazilian federal government, and statements of Minas Gerais and Espírito Santo as well as the federal and state Public Prosecutors’ and Public Defenders’ Offices.”  

Much of this has to do, as Boyd remarks, on the time value of money.  Some 60% of the final R$100 billion settlement is payable over 20 years.  Taking that time frame into account, the nominal amount comes to a net present value of R$48 billion.  Using the net present value analysis also means that the R$32 billion commitment to cover the cost of removing tailings from the Rio Doce and R$30,000 compensation awards to individuals and small businesses who opt into the arrangement, is R$25 billion.  

The financial burden arising from BHP’s compensatory undertakings has also been lessened by the near decade process of dispute resolution, allowing the reopening of the Samarco iron ore mine to take place in the meantime with healthy annual returns of US$750 million. 

Even now, BHP’s mild description of the catastrophe is given a coolly confident assessment.  The company’s website notes that since the dam breach, Samarco operates “with a strong focus on safety and sustainability.”  Alleviating the use of dams has been possible because of the implementation of a “new filtration system”, while 80% of the tailings arising from the operations “are now dry stacked, with the rest deposited in a confined rocky pit.”  Feeble assurance to those hundreds of thousands affected that fateful November in 2015.

Binoy Kampmark

Binoy Kampmark was a Commonwealth Scholar at Selwyn College, Cambridge. He lectures at RMIT University, Melbourne. Email: bkampmark@gmail.com

 

How Many Trees Does It Take To Cool A City?

Baltimore, Maryland's Mount Vernon neighborhood. CREDIT: Anthony G. Reyes

 November 5, 2024  

By Eurasia Review

Cities around the globe are increasingly experiencing dangerous heat as urban concrete and asphalt amplify rising temperatures. Tree-planting programs are a popular, nature-based way to cool cities, but these initiatives have been largely based on guesswork and extrapolation. A study published in Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences offers a new tool for urban planners and decision makers to set more specific and science-based city-wide greening goals. 

The study is led by Jia Wang, Weiqi Zhou, and Yuguo Qian at the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and co-authored by Steward Pickett, an urban ecologist at Cary Institute of Ecosystem Studies.

“Trees offer many benefits to cities, and cooling is one of them,” Pickett explained. “Trees are good at cooling because they pump a lot of water from the ground into the air, and when that water evaporates at the leaf surface, it absorbs a vast amount of heat. That’s just the physics of evaporation. The shade provided by trees also helps with cooling.”

To date, most studies measuring the cooling effects of urban trees focus on the hyperlocal level, such as on a particular street or neighborhood. When the urban tree canopy expands by 1%, for example, nearby temperatures may decrease by 0.04 to 0.57 degrees Celsius. 

“That’s valuable, but planners and decision makers are thinking about the whole city,” said Pickett. “They’re asking, ‘How much tree canopy do we need for the whole city? What happens when we scale it up?’ And that information hasn’t been available.”

It wasn’t clear whether the fine-scale results could be extrapolated to the city scale. So, the researchers set out to determine how trees’ cooling efficiency — the temperature reduction associated with a 1% increase urban tree canopy — changes across larger areas.

The team analyzed satellite imagery and temperature data from four cities with very different climates: Beijing and Shenzhen in China, and Baltimore and Sacramento in the US. Baltimore and Beijing are temperate, Shenzhen is subtropical, and Sacramento is in a mediterranean climate zone. First, they divided each city into pixels approximately the size of a city block. For each pixel, they measured the land surface temperature and how much of the ground was covered by trees. Then they ran the same analyses across larger and larger sections of each city, spanning the neighborhood level, city level, and beyond. Finally, they calculated how the mathematical relationship between greenery and temperature — the cooling efficiency — changed at different scales. 

Overall, the team discovered that the cooling efficiency of urban trees increased at larger scales. But it did so at a slower rate at larger unit sizes. In Beijing, for example, a 1% increase in canopy at the block level decreases temperature by about 0.06 degrees, whereas a 1% increase in canopy at the city level could decrease temperature by about 0.18 degrees. 

The additional benefit at larger scales seems to come from being able to include large groups of trees, which have a larger cooling capacity.

With greater clarity about the relationships between area, tree canopy cover, and cooling effects, the paper makes it possible to predict cooling effects at the whole-city scale, offering a valuable tool for managers to set urban tree canopy goals to reduce extreme heat.

Co-author Weiqi Zhou notes, “We found that cooling efficiency follows a power law across scales – from as small as 120 by 120 meters to as large as regions covering the entire city. The relationship holds across all four of the studied cities, which are in very different climates. This suggests that it could be used to predict the amount of additional tree cover needed to achieve specific heat mitigation and climate adaptation goals in cities worldwide.”

For example, the authors estimate that the city of Baltimore could reduce land surface temperatures by 0.23°C if they increase tree canopy by 1%. To achieve 1.5°C of cooling, they would need to increase tree canopy cover by 6.39%.

While the paper provides essential information for decision-making at the municipal level, Pickett cautions that urban planners may also need to work at smaller scales to ensure that urban trees — and their potential benefits — are distributed equitably across the city, and with community buy-in. 

“This paper doesn’t tell you where to put the trees,” said Pickett. “That’s another sort of analysis, which would have to involve a lot more social information and engagement with communities or with individual property owners.”

Pickett suggested next steps could include broadening the analysis to include other cities with different kinds of climates, and examining how well this nature-based solution will work in the future as climate change makes some areas hotter and drier.