A pioneering study in Spain links the environmental impact of our food choices to human health damage
Replacing meat and dairy with plant-based options and reducing food waste could prevent up to 35% of the total annual impact, equivalent to over 400,000 years of healthy life lost
Planetary health and human health are closely interconnected. What harms the environment, whether in the short or long term, also affects human health. With this planetary health approach, a pioneering study in Spain has quantified for the first time the health damage caused by the environmental impacts of our food demand. The results reveal that the consumption of meat, fish and seafood, and dairy products accounts for 55% of the damage to human health. According to the study, changing consumption patterns and reducing food waste could prevent up to 35% of this impact. The research, published in Environmental Research, was led by the Barcelona Institute for Global Health (ISGlobal), a center supported by the “la Caixa” Foundation, with the support of the Daniel and Nina Carasso Foundation.
The research team applied a cutting-edge scientific methodology, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), to quantify the different environmental impacts of the food system (from production to consumer) and how they affect human health. The data was based on the 2022 food consumption surveys published by Spain’s Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food. The researchers used statistical models to assess the environmental effects on human health, evaluating various key indicators such as climate change, ozone layer depletion, human toxicity, particulate matter formation, ionizing radiation, and photochemical oxidant formation. The health consequences analyzed included cardiovascular diseases, malnutrition, diarrhea, various types of cancer, and respiratory diseases, among other conditions.
The results indicate that, in 2022 alone, the environmental impact of food demand in Spain was associated with a loss of 447,152 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs). This is a widely used public health metric that combines years lost due to premature death and years lived with illness or disability. Of the total environmental impact from food demand with consequences for health, 95% was attributable to food consumption and the remaining 5% to food waste.
Meat, fish and dairy: the foods that most harm human health through their environmental impact
Among the 16 food groups analyzed, meat, fish and seafood, and dairy products were identified as the main contributors to environmental damage with health consequences, accounting for 55% of the total consumption impact. Additionally, these animal-based foods showed a significantly higher health burden compared to plant-based products.
Among the negative effects of the food system, the contribution to climate change was the main environmental factor associated with health damage, accounting for 77% of the total impact. This was followed by particulate matter formation (16%) and human toxicity (7%). Other impacts such as photochemical oxidant formation, ozone layer depletion, and ionizing radiation contributed to a lesser extent.
Dietary changes that can improve global health
The study evaluated several hypothetical scenarios based on commonly promoted measures to reduce the environmental impact of food, aiming to quantify the potential benefits for human health. In the first scenario, replacing red and processed meat with white meat showed modest benefits. However, the greatest benefit emerged when all meat and dairy were replaced with plant-based foods. This change could reduce the environmental health damage by up to 30%. Additionally, if consumer food waste is eliminated, a further 5% reduction in impact could be achieved, totaling a 35% overall improvement.
The research also aimed to assess the nutritional implications of replacing meat and dairy with plant-based foods. Specifically, the team examined total energy intake as well as key macro- and micronutrients, including protein, saturated fat, fiber, calcium, sodium, iron, zinc, and vitamin B12. With the dietary shift, the nutritional profile aligned more closely with World Health Organization (WHO) recommendations. Intake of protein, calcium, and vitamin B12 would decrease but remain within WHO-recommended ranges. In contrast, fiber and iron intake would increase significantly—an especially relevant finding given the current deficiency of these nutrients in the Spanish diet.
Public health implications
This study not only highlights the strong link between diet, the environment, and health, but also opens new opportunities to improve public health through a more sustainable and responsible diet. “The proposed changes would not only reduce environmental impact but also bring the average diet in Spain closer to WHO nutritional recommendations, thus moving toward a more comprehensively healthy diet,” says Ujué Fresán, ISGlobal researcher and lead author of the study.
Moreover, the research provides a solid scientific foundation to guide the development of future food policies. “Our findings can serve as a starting point for designing and implementing policies that promote the transition to healthier eating habits in Spain, considering both the direct and indirect benefits for human health,” adds Fresán.
Reference
Fresán, U., Núñez, M., Valls, I., Rosenbaum, RK. Quantifying the Environmental Human Health Burden of Food Demand in Spain: A Life Cycle Assessment Study. Environmental Research, 2025. Doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2025.122147
Journal
Environmental Research
Method of Research
Meta-analysis
Subject of Research
Not applicable
Article Title
Quantifying the environmental human health burden of food demand in Spain: A life cycle assessment study
Researchers discover tantalisingly ‘sneaky’ way to help diners make healthier, greener menu choices
University of Bristol
Pioneering research has uncovered a cunning way to curry favour with diners’ food choices, so they’re more likely to select meals which have a much lower carbon footprint and reduced fat content.
The study, led by the University of Bristol in the UK and published today in the journal Nature Food, showed the carbon footprint of canteen diners’ weekly meal choices dropped overall by around a third – and saturated fat levels also significantly fell – when selecting from a cleverly reshuffled weekly set menu. Best of all, diners didn’t seem to realise the difference.
Lead author Dr Annika Flynn, Senior Research Associate at the University of Bristol, said: “Improving people’s dietary habits to deliver meaningful health and environmental benefits is a meaty challenge. So the scale of benefits generated by our relatively simple intervention of weekly menu manipulation, which didn’t change the actual dishes or recipes themselves and seemed to go unnoticed, were really surprising.
“This sneaky technique could be a game-changer in many different kitchen menu settings, especially given people’s growing appetite to make healthier decisions and the increased drive to reduce carbon emissions globally.”
Changing how people can decide, restricting the number of choices available – for example the legal minimum age to buy alcohol – or disincentivising a particular option – such as the ‘sugar tax’ – are all proven techniques used by governments to drive behaviour change. Although influencing what people opt to eat is no mean feat, the researchers reckon there are rewards to be reaped among the 42% of UK workers who report eating at a canteen, as well as the millions of children and young people served meals daily at schools and universities.
Chiefly, the researchers wanted to test the theory that specific health and environmental benefits can be delivered by merely rearranging the meal options on a weekly set menu, based on consumer preferences and meal attributes. That marked the start of a project called SNEAK (Sustainable Nutrition, Environment, and Agriculture, without Consumer Knowledge), supported by the UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) Transforming UK Food Systems for Healthy People and a Healthy Environment Programme.
They teamed up with the University’s Catering Department, which is at the forefront of introducing healthy, more sustainable food options in the higher education sector. For starters, they used computational mathematics to number crunch data on the popularity of different meals. Using this intel they then reorganised the weekly menu, swapping meals across the week to change the ‘competition’ between dishes served each day at a catered halls of residence.
Co-author Jeff Brunstrom, Professor of Experimental Psychology at the University of Bristol, explained: “In a nutshell, we rotated two weekly menus comprising three different evening meal choices each weekday. Typically this would generate 1.4 million menu combinations, but we slashed this by around 90% to 113,400 combinations after simply stipulating one of the meal options must be vegan to cater for diverse needs by students. But our optimised menu featured the same 15 dishes as the original, just reorganised on different days to boost uptake of the more sustainable, healthier options.”
One of the weekly menus was shown to reduce the overall carbon footprint by 31.4% and saturated fat intake by 11.3%, while the other lowered the overall carbon footprint by 30% and saturated fat intake by 1.4% across some 300 diners.
Dr Flynn added: “Since diners can only choose one evening meal per day, we found it is best to cluster the meals with a high carbon footprint and saturated fat content, such as lasagne and chicken Kiev, on the same day so these more popular options compete against each other. That means greener options – like lentil chilli and cauliflower curry – are more likely to be chosen across the week. The net effect is that peoples' total weekly carbon footprint and saturated fat intake is reduced.”
Findings indicated diner satisfaction levels were largely unaffected by the change. The study also modelled the potential for other notable nutritional and environmental benefits from making the menu switch. For instance, some menu combinations had the potential to increase fibre intake by 69.2% and salt intake by 14.1%. Land use and possible over-enrichment of water and soil might also be cut by around a third (31.7% and 33% respectively).
Co-author Alex Sim, Development Chef at the University of Bristol, said: “Over the years students have become increasingly interested in the environmental impact and healthiness of their meals, so they tend to be very receptive to making changes and trying new dishes.
“While there will always be clear favourites, like chicken Kiev and lasagne, vegan options which generally have a smaller carbon footprint, are also proving very popular. Structuring menus to help further promote these choices is a clear win-win. We work hard to make these options really flavourful and nutritious, so it’s great to see them going down so well with students.”
The University of Bristol is making significant changes to reduce carbon emissions and is committed to becoming a net zero campus. For instance, it was the first university in the world to achieve institutional Green Labs Certification for each of its 990 laboratories, and its Source catering provider now shows the carbon footprint on all menus.
The research was funded by a UK Research and Innovation (UKRI) Strategic Priorities Fund (SPF) called Transforming UK Food Systems and is also supported by the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Bristol Biomedical Research Centre (Bristol BRC).
Professor Richard Martin, Associate Pro Vice-Chancellor for Research and Innovation at the University of Bristol, said: “Human dietary habits are generating an unsustainable burden on healthcare systems and environmental sustainability globally. So these results are extremely exciting because they demonstrate how simply changing the competition structure within weekly set menus can help steer millions of people towards making choices which have significantly lower carbon emissions and are healthier too.
“Thanks to the excellent work of our talented researchers and catering experts, we’re leading the field in offering students enticing, well-balanced meals that are also kinder to the environment – a cause they really care about. We’re already scaling this up by sharing our learnings and innovative recipes with the catering teams of other universities across the country. There is also the wider potential to apply this technique in other settings, like schools, hospitals, care homes, and workplace canteens. The collective impact could be huge, and provides exciting food for thought about how a fresh approach to menu design might play a tangible part in helping address a pressing global challenge now and in future years.”
Journal
Nature Food
Subject of Research
People
Article Title
‘Dish swap across weekly menu can deliver health and sustainability gains’
Article Publication Date
11-Aug-2025
Dollar stores’ food options may not be hurting American diets overall
Analysis shows that while less healthy foods are staples of discount chains, households are compensating with healthier purchases elsewhere
Using dollar stores for food purchases may be a common practice for Americans looking to free up funds for the rest of their grocery list, researchers from Tufts University School of Medicine, the Gerald J. and Dorothy R. Friedman School of Nutrition Science and Policy at Tufts University, and the USDA-Economic Research Service report on August 11 in the Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics.
Their multi-year analysis of where households buy their non-restaurant calories found that dollar store food purchases are rising. Although the food purchased is less healthy compared with other food outlets, families are balancing this with more nutritious items elsewhere.
To measure the impact of the accelerating expansion of dollar stores and the convenient, calorie-rich snacks that line their shelves on the American diet, the researchers examined food purchases made by 180,000 nationally representative households in the United States between 2008 and 2020. They then combined this data with the USDA's Economic Research Service's Purchase to Plate Crosswalk tool, which allowed them to estimate the dietary quality of these households' food purchases.
The analysis found that calories obtained from dollar store items have nearly doubled, growing from 3.4% to 6.5% of a household’s total purchases, especially in households with lower incomes or those headed by people of color.
But the study also reflected more nuanced shopper behaviors, particularly for those in rural areas – where the nearest grocery store could be much further than the local dollar store. While these budget-friendly outlets do provide discounts for lower-quality products, even those who use these retailers the most are, on average, getting over 90% of their calories from other outlets.
“The literature suggests that people go to different types of stores for different reasons and the dollar store is one that people choose because of the price advantage,” said first author Wenhui Feng, Tufts Health Plan Professor of Health Care Policy Research and assistant professor of public health and community medicine at the School of Medicine. “There are a lot of concerns that foods on dollar store shelves are less healthy, but what’s on the shelf does not equal what each household takes home. Our study looks at how healthy the foods purchased in dollar stores are and compares that with the healthfulness of each household’s overall food purchases.”
As the fastest growing food retailer in the United States in the past decade, dollar stores have transformed the retail landscape with at least 37,000 physical locations nationwide. While known for carrying a wide range of products, they also sell packaged foods and beverages that are high in calories and low in nutrients, with only a small percentage of outlets carrying produce or meats. The study noted their presence is particularly strong in the South and outside of cities.
While dollar stores have raised concerns about public health, competition with local businesses, and security issues due to reported understaffing, more research is needed to validate their actual impact on Americans. At least 25 local governments have established policies restricting their expansion, but the effectiveness of these measures is unknown. The research confirms that items purchased from dollar stores are, on average, less healthy than those purchased elsewhere, but also notes that the average household is getting 55% of their non-restaurant calories from grocery stores and 22% from club stores.
“Some people seem to be going to dollar stores strategically to buy sweets and snacks, along with other packaged foods.” said senior author Sean Cash, Bergstrom Foundation Professor in Global Nutrition and Chair of the Division of Agriculture, Food and Environment at the Friedman School, but he notes that people who buy more of those at dollar stores seem to be buying less elsewhere. “We need more data on the real effects of dollar stores on healthy eating as some communities may be putting the policy cart before the horse.”
This study was supported in part by a USDA Economic Research Service Cooperative Agreement (58-4000-0-0021) and a Tufts University Springboard award (M530868). Complete information on authors, funders, methodology and conflicts of interest is available in the published paper.
The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the funders.
Journal
Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics
Article Title
The Healthfulness of Foods Purchased at Dollar Stores: Insights from Household Scanner Data from 2008 to 2020
Article Publication Date
11-Aug-2025
Scientific discovery: Neutralizing a protein may prevent the development of food allergies
image:
(Left to right): Anish Dsilva & Prof. Ariel Munitz
view moreCredit: Tel Aviv University
A new study from the Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences at Tel Aviv University may mark a breakthrough in the treatment of Eosinophilic Esophagitis (EoE) — a chronic inflammatory disease of the esophagus caused by food allergies. EoE leads to difficulty swallowing, chest and abdominal pain, and even growth delays in children. Its prevalence has been steadily increasing over the past decade in Israel and the Western world. In this new study, researchers identified the protein TSLP as a catalyst in the disease’s development, and found that neutralizing it may lead to significant relief of symptoms.
The study, led by Prof. Ariel Munitz and doctoral student Anish Dsilva from the Gray Faculty of Medical and Health Sciences, was conducted in collaboration with Dr. Chen Varol of Ichilov Hospital, Prof. Marc Rothenberg of Cincinnati Children’s Hospital, and the pharmaceutical company AstraZeneca. The research was supported by grants from the Israel Science Foundation, the US-Israel Binational Science Foundation, and the Azrieli Foundation Canada–Israel. The article was published in Allergy, the leading journal in clinical immunology.
Prof. Munitz explains: “Eosinophilic Esophagitis, or EoE, is a type of food allergy. It is a chronic inflammation of the esophagus caused by an abnormal immune response to food — mainly milk, eggs, wheat, nuts, fish, and more. The disease is characterized by an accumulation of eosinophils, a type of white blood cell that is not typically present in a healthy esophagus. EoE is often associated with other allergic conditions such as asthma and atopic dermatitis. It causes difficulty swallowing, food getting stuck in the esophagus, chest and abdominal pain, and growth delays in children. Current treatments require restrictive diets, and in severe cases, patients rely on essential amino acid formulas. Over the past decade, there has been a concerning rise in the prevalence of EoE worldwide, including in Israel. We are studying the disease in depth to understand the involvement of various immune system components in its progression. These components may serve as targets for future treatment for this disease, and for other allergic disorders as well.”
A previous study from Prof. Munitz’s lab, also published in Allergy, presented an experimental model that closely mimics the course and symptoms of EoE in humans. As a direct continuation of that study, the researchers now focused on a specific aspect of the disease, aiming to understand the role of epithelial cells. Prof. Munitz elaborates: “Epithelial cells form a protective outer layer that prevents foreign bodies from entering organs, including the digestive and respiratory systems. In allergic conditions, epithelial cells release various substances in response to encountering an allergen, and these substances trigger the chain of events that initiate the inflammatory process we experience as an allergy attack.”
The researchers found that epithelial cells in the esophagus of the EoE experimental model secreted high levels of two proteins: IL-33 and TSLP. They also discovered that the esophageal tissue in the mouse models contained a variety of immune cells that express receptors for both proteins. The fact that these two proteins are released in EoE, and that there are tissue cells with receptors that can respond to them, indicates that these are active proteins capable of causing the onset of the disease.
The researchers then sought to understand the division of roles between these two proteins in the disease: does each contribute differently, or do they act together? They believed that answering these questions would clarify the mechanisms that trigger EoE, and reveal which could be blocked as a treatment strategy. To this end, they used genetic engineering tools to create experimental models of the disease in which one of the proteins was absent.
The findings were unequivocal: the absence of the IL-33 protein did not significantly change the course of the disease. However, in the absence of TSLP, there was a significant improvement in EoE symptoms — to the point where the disease did not develop at all. Furthermore, a series of experiments in which the researchers neutralized TSLP with an antibody led to a significant reduction in symptoms. Further investigation using sequencing technologies and bioinformatic analyses revealed that TSLP functions as a key regulator of the disease. Based on these findings, the researchers concluded that the TSLP protein could serve as a target for new treatments for chronic esophageal inflammation (EoE).
Prof. Munitz concludes: “In this study, we found that the TSLP protein is a central player in EoE — a disease that causes significant suffering and is becoming increasingly prevalent worldwide. We know that pharmaceutical companies are currently developing a variety of antibodies targeting disease-causing proteins, under the broad category of biological therapies, including antibodies against TSLP. We believe these antibodies could serve as an effective treatment for EoE.”
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