What is forest bathing?

Forest bathing is a mindful, meditative practice.

By Kirsten McEwan published 1 day ago

Forest bathing involves using your senses to notice your surroundings while out in nature. 

(Image credit: Godong / Contributor via Getty Images)

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What does forest bathing look like?
How is it different from a normal nature walk?
Origins
Benefits
Mechanism and "dosage"
Find forest bathing guides
Bibliography

Forest bathing, or shinrin-yoku in Japanese, means to soak in the forest through all of your senses. In practice, forest bathing can be a slow, mindful walk in nature, where you pay close attention to your surroundings using your senses (e.g. sight, smell, hearing, touch). There is no destination or goal, other than to notice and appreciate your surroundings.

Forest bathing, which originated in Japan in the 1980s, can be practiced alone. However, it is often helpful to try the first few times with a guide who can suggest new ways of enhancing your senses and prompt you to notice your surroundings.

Related: What is mental health?

WHAT DOES FOREST BATHING LOOK LIKE?

Forest bathing involves using your senses to notice your surroundings. For example, this may include noticing the different colors and patterns of leaves; noticing movement in the tree canopy or on the surface of water; viewing a natural scene or finding a "sit spot" from which to observe nature; smelling fallen leaves and soil; listening to the sound of the wind through the trees, running water or bird song; or noticing textures by touching bark, leaves and moss.

Although most of the walk is conducted in silence so that you can pay full attention to your surroundings, a guide can offer opportunities to share the interesting things you notice. Other people’s observations can also inspire you to look for new things, such as the fallen leaf that smelled like cinnamon, for instance.

Often the guide ends the session by inviting people to spend time with a preferred tree or a view or by leading a mindfulness activity that involves noticing your surroundings through all the senses in turn. (Broadly speaking, "mindfulness" refers to the act of bringing your attention to what you're doing in the present moment.)

Some guides end the session by offering a foraged tea to experience the sense of taste in the forest.

HOW IS FOREST BATHING DIFFERENT FROM A TYPICAL WALK IN NATURE?

Even for those who already love the outdoors, forest bathing often differs dramatically from their usual experience of being in nature.

On a typical nature walk, you might be moving quickly to cover distance, chatting with a friend, walking the dog, listening to music, checking your phone or simply being distracted by your thoughts. In contrast, in a guided forest bathing session, the guide plans a route that provides opportunities to notice nature using all the senses, sets a slower pace and provides prompts to keep you in your senses rather than inside your busy head. The guide will suggest different ways to enhance our senses to help you notice the small details of your surroundings that you would normally miss on a typical walk.

ORIGINS OF FOREST BATHING

Forest bathing originated in Japan, where the practice is called shinrin-yoku. The translation into English is "forest bathing," and a bit like the term "sun bathing," the idea is that you "bathe" in the atmosphere of the forest by noticing your surroundings and breathing in the oxygen and wood oils let off by the trees.

Japan has a long cultural history of valuing nature through Shintoism, a religion that centers around the idea that divine spirits or "kami" are manifested in everything in nature, taking the form of the trees, rocks, mountains, sea and animals, according to the Asia Society(opens in new tab).

In the 1980s, when the Japanese government realized they had a problem with stressed workers who were experiencing too much screen-time — or "techno-stress" — the government invested in forest bathing as a solution, protecting woodland and establishing 62 forest bathing clinics. Forest bathing became available on prescription, so when patients visit their doctor because of stress or high blood pressure, they may be given the option to take medication or try forest bathing, according to "Shinrin Yoku: The Japanese Art of Forest Bathing(opens in new tab)" (Li, 2018).

 
BENEFITS OF FOREST BATHING

Since 2004, the Japanese government has invested $4.3 million in 62 clinics offering forest bathing as a public health treatment, according to "Shinrin Yoku: The Japanese Art of Forest Bathing." The science about the benefits of forest bathing came later with Japanese researchers such as Qing Li and Yoshifumi Miyazaki leading the way in proving what people intuitively knew: that spending time in nature is good for you.

So far, research has shown that forest bathing can improve several aspects of a person's health. For example, research published in February 2021 in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health(opens in new tab) showed a decrease in systolic blood pressure after 12 healthy volunteers practiced forest bathing for a two-hour stint. In a research article published in October 2018 in the journal Frontiers in Public Health(opens in new tab), scientists showed improvements in heart rate variability — a measure of cardiovascular health — in 485 male participants while walking in a forest for just 15 minutes.

Research published in February 2018 in the journal Biomedical and Environmental Sciences(opens in new tab), found reduced biomarkers of chronic heart failure, inflammation and oxidative stress in elderly chronic heart failure patients after they participated in two four-day forest bathing trips. Researchers also found that a five-day forest trip improved immune system health, as indicated by an increase in natural killer cells, which are part of the body's defence against cancer, they reported in March 2018 in the journal Oncotarget(opens in new tab).

Research has also found that forest bathing offers psychological benefits. In a review of 20 research studies published July 2022 in the International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction(opens in new tab), researchers found consistent improvements in mood, especially anxiety, following forest bathing sessions. In January 2021 researchers published an article in the journal Sustainability(opens in new tab), revealing reductions in anxiety and rumination about problems, and increases in social connection and prosocial values such as feeling compassion for others in 61 volunteers, after two hours of forest bathing.

 
HOW DOES IT WORK AND WHAT'S THE DOSE?

In researcher Li’s book "Shinrin-Yoku: The Art and Science of Forest Bathing," he describes how 50% of the benefit of forest bathing comes from breathing in the essential oils given out by evergreen trees. His research suggests that forest bathing for two hours daily and breathing in the wood oils, known as phytoncides, is linked to an increase in the number and activity of natural killer cells in the body. This research led to guidance about the correct "dose" of forest bathing: at least two hours every month.

(Different tree species produce different phytoncides, and more research is needed to understand whether trees native to different regions of the world offer specific benefits, according to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation(opens in new tab).)

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Research published in the journal Scientific Reports(opens in new tab) in 2019 found that spending two hours in nature per week produces the greatest noticeable improvements in well-being, measured as a change in self-reported health and well-being. However, don’t worry if you can’t spend two hours in one go forest bathing, because the same study found that shorter visits to nature — as short as 20 minutes per day adding up to two hours per week — were still really beneficial to a person's health and well-being.

According to research published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health(opens in new tab) in 2021, levels of the stress hormone cortisol typically decrease in people's blood after just 15 minutes of forest bathing. And there are many forest bathing guides who notice it takes about 20 minutes for people to slow down, relax and connect with their surroundings during a session, so give yourself at least 20 minutes each day to connect with nature in your garden, local park, forest or any other type of natural environment that appeals to you.

WHERE CAN I FIND FOREST BATHING GUIDES NEAR ME?

Forest bathing guides can offer in-person forest bathing walks or if you are currently experiencing low energy or limited mobility, some guides offer online forest bathing experiences.

You can find a trained guide near you by using the certified guide maps on the Association of Nature and Forest Therapy(opens in new tab) website and Forest Therapy Hub(opens in new tab) website.

For forest bathing in New York City, check out the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx(opens in new tab).

For forest bathing across Washington DC, perhaps try a guided walk with naturalist and author Melanie Choukas-Bradley(opens in new tab).

You can also search MeetUp.com(opens in new tab) or EventBrite.com(opens in new tab) to find guides near you.

For those with low energy or limited mobility there are online(opens in new tab) forest bathing sessions.

If you’d rather try forest bathing on your own, there are audio(opens in new tab) and visual(opens in new tab) guides to get you started.

BIBLIOGRAPHY


Jones, R., Tarter, R., Ross, A.M. (2021). Greenspace Interventions, Stress and Cortisol: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6):2802. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062802(opens in new tab)


Kobayashi, H., Song, C., Ikei, H., Park, B-J., Lee, J., Kagawa, T., Miyazaki (2018). Forest Walking Affects Autonomic Nervous Activity: A Population-Based Study. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00278(opens in new tab)


Kotera, Y., Richardson, M. & Sheffield, D. (2022). Effects of Shinrin-Yoku (Forest Bathing) and Nature Therapy on Mental Health: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 337–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00363-4(opens in new tab)


Li, Q. (2018). Shinrin-Yoku: The Art and Science of Forest Bathing’. Penguin Life. (ISBN13: 9780241346952)


Mao, G.X., Cao, Y.B., Yang, Y., Chen, Z.M., Dong, J.H., Chen, S.S., Wu, Q., Lyu, X.L., Jia, B.B. Yan, J., Wang, G.F. (2018). Additive Benefits of Twice Forest Bathing Trips in Elderly Patients with Chronic Heart Failure, Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, 31,2, 159-162. https://doi.org/10.3967/bes2018.020(opens in new tab)


McEwan, K., Giles, D., Clarke, F.J., Kotera, Y., Evans, G., Terebenina, O., Minou, L., Teeling, C., Basran, J., Wood, W., Weil, D. (2021). A Pragmatic Controlled Trial of Forest Bathing Compared with Compassionate Mind Training in the UK: Impacts on Self-Reported Wellbeing and Heart Rate Variability. Sustainability. 13(3):1380. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031380(opens in new tab)


Miyazaki, H. (2018). Shinrin-yoku: the Japanese way of forest bathing for health and relaxation. Aster. (ISBN13: 1912023512)


NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). Immerse yourself in a forest for Better Health. Immerse Yourself in a Forest for Better Health . Retrieved June 24, 2022, from https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/90720.html (opens in new tab)


Peterfalvi, A., Meggyes, M., Makszin, L., Farkas, N., Miko, E., Miseta, A., Szereday, L. (2021). Forest Bathing Always Makes Sense: Blood Pressure-Lowering and Immune System-Balancing Effects in Late Spring and Winter in Central Europe. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4):2067. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042067(opens in new tab)


Tsao, T., Tsai, M., Hwang, J., Cheng, W., Wu, C., Chou, C., Su, T. (2018). Health effects of a forest environment on natural killer cells in humans: an observational pilot study. Oncotarget, 9, 16501-16511. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.24741(opens in new tab)


White, M.P., Alcock, I., Grellier, J., Wheeler, B.W., Hartig, T., Warber, S.L., Bone, A., Depledge, M.H., Fleming, L.E. (2019). Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Science Reports, 9, 7730. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3(opens in new tab)


This article is for informational purposes only, and is not meant to offer medical advice.


Originally published on Live Science.

Kirsten McEwan Live Science Contributor

Kirsten McEwan is a research psychologist and associate professor of health and wellbeing at the University of Derby in the U.K. She is happiest spending time in nature and unites her passion for the outdoors with health and wellbeing research as a forest bathing researcher and practitioner. For the last 20 years, she has worked in hospitals and universities evaluating the effectiveness of health and well-being treatments. Most of her research has centered on talk therapies for mental health, such as Compassion-Focused Therapy. Her current research largely focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of forest bathing and making it accessible to a wider swath of the population.

Bengal: Who’s Responsible For Raging Forest Fires in Bankura?

Madhu Sudan Chatterjee | 22 May 2024 | NEWSCLICK INDIA

Locals indicate a pattern in the fires across Jangal Mahal that are leading to trees disappearing, and large-scale destruction of various animal species.





Burning Susunia Hill Bankura


The fire was raging in the forest of Bankura in Jangal Mahal, with the flames spreading rapidly due to wind pressure. The eerie silence of the forest was often broken by the melodious yet pitiful sounds of various bird species, desperately trying to survive. Amidst the heat of the fire and coils of smoke, animals, such as hares, deer, porcupines, wild boars, and various species of snakes, could be seen fleeing. But, where would they find shelter?

After a long wait, the fire brigade’s alarm was finally heard. It took 10-15 hours for them to extinguish the fire. In the aftermath, amid the thick smoke, the scorched ground was littered with dead porcupines, birds, snakes, rabbits, wild boars, and foxes. The insects had turned into ashes.

This terrible scene of forest fires has spread across the Jangal Mahal area of Bankura district. The frequency of these fires is increasing every year, says locals. But, why is this so? The answer lies in the sequence of events in Jangal Mahal after the fire was extinguished. The administration, forest department, local panchayat, and elected representatives at the Assembly and Parliament levels, all aware of the situation, remained silent observers.
Forest Area of Bankura and its Greening History

The current forest area of Bankura and how the once-destroyed forest became greener have been in the news. It is well-documented that until the late 1970s, Bankura district was one of the most economically backward districts in West Bengal. Thousands of hectares of land lay uncultivated; there were no irrigation facilities. Agricultural production, including rice and potatoes, had reached its lowest point, and for a long time.

Bankura district had no industry. Due to this dire economic structure, the poor and marginalised people had no work and were unable to buy rice at high prices from the black market. JyansankarMitra, a senior citizen and former sabhadhipati (head) of Bankura Zilla Parishad, told this writer that approximately 70% of the population in the district faced food shortages. Poor and jobless people from villages and towns used to often stage protests at Block Development Offices, demanding a meagre 2 kilograms of wheat or rice. People were suffering from extreme malnutrition. Several residents who witnessed that period recalled a saying, "Kangali Bhojon" (poor person's lunch), indicating that during festivals at wealthy families' homes, poor people would rush to get a full meal.

With no alternative sources of income, these poor villagers became dependent on the forest. They collected forest resources and sold them, and even cut down tree branches and trees. Unscrupulous wood traders took advantage of their poverty, paying them small wages for this work. The Forest Department was unable to stop this, and the government paid no attention. As a result, the forests of Bankura were rapidly destroyed. By the end of 1977, the forest area of the district had shrunk to only 12%.

After the Left Front government came to power in Bengal in 1977, the Land Reform Act was implemented. As per the Act, land exceeding the ceiling was transferred to the state government's land department. Much of this land had been held by landlords under the names of family members and others, without being cultivated.

After legally reclaiming these lands, the Left Front government distributed them among the poor landless people as patta (permanent settlement of land). A three-tier panchayat system was created. The panchayat and various government departments introduced several schemes to help the poor landholders. Agricultural production increased within three years, and the poverty levels began to decrease.

Along with land reform, an initiative to rebuild the forest of the district was undertaken in the name of ‘social forestry’. Various species of trees, including teak, Akashmoni, eucalyptus, sandalwood, and banyan, were planted across Bankura's forest area. Seed nurseries were established in several places within the district. The panchayat, Forest Department, and Horticulture Department jointly carried out this work.

"At that time, it was a great challenge for us, but we were committed to rebuilding the greenery," said Subrata Goswami, a retired ranger of the Bankura Panchet Forest Division.

Recalling that period, Nayan Hansda, a 75-year-old resident of Sutan village in Ranibandh, recalls that the destroyed forest turned green within four to five years. The greenery spread in areas including Joypur, Patrasayer, Sonamukhi, Barjora, Taldangra, Bishnupur, and Sarenga. He said Forest Protection Committees (FPC) were created with approval from the Forest Department. Women and men from forest-adjacent areas were made members of these committees. The forest staff, including bit and range officers, held monthly meetings with them. The panchayat also maintained contact. Villagers could collect forest fruits, flowers, leaves, and fallen branches. Additionally, the committee members received 25% of the selling price after cutting mature trees to protect the forest.

"The Forest Department built community centres, wells, playgrounds and school buildings for the villages. Members were given umbrellas and winter clothes," Sunil Basuli, a retired range officer of Barjora Range told this writer.

"A family relationship developed between forest staff and FPC members. As a result of their 24-hour vigilance, there was no damage to the forest. It grew rapidly and turned dense. Peacocks, deer, rabbits, and various snake species could be seen. Herds of elephants from Dalma started coming to Bankura forest in 1984," he recalled.

According to satellite observation, the total forest area of Bankura district, comprising three divisions—Bankura (North), Bankura (South), and Panchet Division—is about 1,463.56 km², covering 21.27% of the total land area of the district, compared with Bengal's overall forest coverage of 18.96%.
Is Forest Greenery Gradually Decreasing?

Over the past five years, from mid-February to the end of May, miscreants have been setting fire in various parts of Bankura forest. The pattern of these fires suggests a deliberate and coordinated effort, as the fires are set in areas densely populated with valuable trees like Sal, teak, and Akashmoni. After the fires are extinguished, the burned trees mysteriously disappear within a week. Where are these valuable trees going? Despite knowing about these fires, the concerned range offices are not filing First Information Reports (FIRs) with any police station. Why?

A few days ago, the Baromile Jungle of Ranibandh forest, which covers the largest forest area in Bankura district, was burning. This area, located on the way from Ranibandh to Jhilimili, has experienced similar fires at the same time for the past five years. The flames spread from the roadside deep into the Baromile forest. Despite the fire brigade's efforts, the fire continued for 24 hours.

Fifteen days ago, a similar fire occurred in Barjora forest, where four fire brigade engines from Bankura and Durgapur tried to douse the flames. The trees in the forest were left standing, blackened and scorched. Similar incidents have been reported in Joypur, Patrasayer, Bishnupur, Basudebpur, Kanchanpur, Sonamukhi, Beliatore, Gangajalghati, Mankanali, Taldangra, and Sarenga forests—major forest areas in the district.

Additionally, many small and medium-sized natural and planted forests have been set on fire. Not a single forest area has been free of such fires. Even Susunia Hill, a prominent mountain climbing centre in Bengal, and the ancient Bamnisini hills of Ranibandh have not been spared. These hills, which are 400 meters in height, have seen fires continuously for years due to their valuable trees. Locals allege that most of the trees were burned and looted.

“For five months, several forests have been on fire almost every day. There are only six fire stations in Bankura district, with a limited number of workers and no new recruitments. Sometimes, we are late in reaching the locations,” Khalid Ansary, an officer at the Bankura fire station, told this writer He added that if news of fires comes from 10 places simultaneously, it is impossible to reach all of them.

When asked why the forest was constantly seeing fire during these four months, Divisional Forest Officers (DFO) Umar Imam of Bankura North and Pradip Bauri of Bankura South said the exact reasons were unclear. However, many unknown travellers or locals smoke in the forest and carelessly discard burning cigarettes and bidis, igniting the dry forest. They also mentioned that some people start fires for amusement. The forest department is promoting awareness to prevent such actions and is keeping a vigil on this matter.

Former Range Officer Sunil Basuli said, “During the Left Front period, even a small fire in the forest would result in an FIR being filed with the local police station by the concerned bit or range office, and a copy of the FIR would be sent to the forest department headquarters. I do not know if this happens now.”

He said earlier, FPC members used to protect the forest. They held annual general meetings to elect office bearers, but such meetings have not occurred for several years. FPC members have lost contact with the forest department.

Jadunath Saren, an FPC member of Dalangora under Taldangra block, said that while the committee was officially active, it was practically non-existent. Several FPC members across the district allege that ruling Trinamool Congress activists have taken over, leading to local disappointment and reluctance to risk their lives to save the forest.

“There have been no new appointments for 12 years. How can two forest staff monitor such a vast area?” said a forest staff member from Ranibandh who wished to remain anonymous. As a result, trees are being looted indiscriminately after fires and in normal conditions. Many medicinal plants are dying due to deforestation, and numerous porcupines have perished on Susunia Hill. Many animals, including deer, snakes, wild boars, and rabbits, are dying. A few days ago, three deer died in the Baromile forest fire in Ranibandh, he said.

Towards the end of the monsoon, the forest produces several species of mushrooms around the bases of trees, which are in high demand due to their taste and market value. Local women collect these mushrooms to sell in the market. Many women from forested areas of the district have reported that mushroom production is decreasing due to the burning soil, negatively impacting their livelihoods.

Professor Asis Bhattacharya, former Head of the Department of Zoology at Bankura Sammilani College, told this writer that forest fires harm biodiversity and the ecological system. Many birds that eat the fruits of medicinal plants help those plants regenerate by spreading their seeds through defecation. These birds are dying in the fires, preventing the growth of new plants. Furthermore, increased carbon in the air from the fires can cause respiratory and skin diseases among local residents.

The deep forest created by the people of Bankura has made the district known as ‘Jangal Mahal’ (Forest Palace) in Bengal. However, if the forests continue to be destroyed at this rate, will Bankura still be known as Jangal Mahal?

The writer covers the Jangal Mahal region for Bengali daily ‘Ganashakti’ in West Bengal.

Image credit: Madhu Sudan Chatterjee

Putting a price tag on the amenity value of private forests

Peer-Reviewed Publication

UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN - FACULTY OF SCIENCE

 

IMAGE: MARIE LAUTRUP view more 

CREDIT: PHOTO: COPENHAGEN UNIVERSITY

When it comes to venturing into and enjoying nature, forests are the people’s top choice – at least in Denmark. This is also reflected in the sales prices of properties with private forest. But beyond earnings potential, this first study of its kind, conducted by the University of Copenhagen, puts a price tag on the so-called amenity value of Danish private forests.

Forests have a nearly therapeutic effect on humans. Perhaps that is why eight out of ten of Danes have wandered in the woods over the last year and trends like forest bathing are gaining in popularity. Most people have probably experienced relaxing their shoulders, deepening their breathing, and found peace while being immersed in the deep, quiet tranquility of a forest.

While there is nothing novel about venturing into the woods to find peace of mind, the value of forests for Danes is fully intact. Studies by the Danish Outdoor Council and UCPH’s Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, among others, have shown that Danes prefer forest outings over trips to the beach or wandering open fields and meadows.

Forest owners are quite aware of this as well. A new study by researchers at the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Food and Resource Economics investigated the amenity value of private forest ownership. It turns out that there are good reasons to buy (or plant) private forest for anyone interested in increasing the quality of their and their family’s life – or increase their property value, as the amenity value is clearly reflected in the sales prices of rural properties.

"We see a fairly significant difference in the price of rural homes with and without forested areas larger than half a hectare. In fact, we see an increased value of DKK 25,000-75,000 per hectare of private forest, less the income opportunities from the forest," says Marie Lautrup of the Department of Food and Resource Economics, the study’s lead author.

Using large data sets, Lautrup and her colleagues were able to exclude other rural home factors that might otherwise explain their increased value, thereby excluding the forest's potential as a source of income from forestry, hunting leases, etc., from the equation.

"In this way, we isolated this intangible amenity value of private forests and put a price tag on it," says the researcher.

She hopes that the findings can be used by public authorities and lawmakers to target government support and incentives to establish and conserve private forest.

The bigger the forest, the greater its amenity value

Most forests in Denmark are owned by private landholders. Proprietorship is divided into many small forest owners and a few people who own a lot. According to Marie Lautrup, forest owners have a great influence on the landscape that Danes live and go about in. As such, it was interesting for her to investigate the values private forest owners attribute to their forests.

"Fortunately, we can see that private forest owners are like most people when it comes to forests. In particular, they love deciduous forests and their tall and thereby older trees. So, they have an incentive to manage their forest with the same interests in mind, and thus with the same values as the rest of society. So far so good," says Marie Lautrup.

But why do they have forest – is it just to make money? The researchers sought answers to this question as well. The conclusion was that forest holds great value for private owners, beyond its capital value.

"In fact, the figures in our study demonstrate that regardless of whether it is a small or a slightly larger forest, the sale price is characterized by a value attributed to it by the owner's pure joy of the forest, i.e., its perceived amenity value. We haven’t accounted for all forest sizes in the study, but based on the data we have, it seems that any increase in value follows forest size. The more, the better," says Marie Lautrup.

Can help increase Danish forest area

The researchers hope that politicians and public authorities will be able to use the study to target legislation on deductions and subsidies related to forest management and afforestation efforts.

For example, the results can be used to accelerate ordinary people's efforts to increase Denmark's forest area, because establishing small forests is a good investment.

"In Denmark, we have a political goal of reaching 20-25% forested area by the end of the 21st century. The remaining 5-10% can be obtained by encouraging private landowners to plant forests, among other things. Traditionally, it has been difficult to put the public subsidy pool to use," explains Marie Lautrup and continues:

"Those who receive forest subsidies tend to be the large forest owners. So, if you want to boost private forest development, you may need to get hold of the slightly smaller owners. Here, the study clearly shows that it creates value, both in terms of quality of life, but also financially, to become a small forest owner," she says.

Planting forests of a certain size in Denmark may also make them fall under the Danish Forest Act. The 1805 law prohibits forests from being cleared and came into being at a time when Denmark lacked wood to build warships, among other things.

According to Marie Lautrup, increasing the forested area of Denmark has several advantages. On the one hand, it will increase forest access for Danes, as private forests are open to all during daytime, so long as paths are used, except for in very small forests.

At the same time, it could play a role in Denmark's efforts to reduce atmospheric CO2, as trees are natural CO2 capturers.

 

Facts: What is amenity value?

Amenity value is something that cannot be immediately sold in a market, for example timber and hunting leases.

It can be understood as qualities in a place or environment that make it attractive to use, e.g. in connection with the importance of scenic surroundings for a home's sales value

 

Facts: Danes prefer forests

• Forests have clearly occupied first place as a destination for outdoors life over the past 30 years, despite many other new types of leisure and experiences.
• Studies conducted by the Danish Outdoor Council have also shown that forest trips and picnics are Danes' favorite experience in nature, ahead of, for example, visits to the beach and meadows. 78% of Danes visited forests over the past six months
• According to a previous study by the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, approximatively 70 million visits are made by Danes to the forest annually – an average of 30-40 times per person.

 

About the study

The study is based on property registers, map data and accounting data, and shows correspondence – or correlation – between privately-owned forest and sales prices of rural properties, which reveal a measurable amenity value of private forest.

The researchers have analysed an increased amenity value per additional hectare of forest of DKK 25,000-75,000. And higher still for the smallest rural homes.

By statistically comparing similar rural homes, the researchers were able to identify the impact of a wide range of characteristics on rural home sales prices, including forested areas of at least half a hectare.

(Both data availability and the official definition of forest have placed constraints on the study — there must be more than half an acre of trees of a certain height before it counts in the statistics.)

In this way, the researchers concluded that forest has a significant positive impact on the sales price and been able to estimate the average value of an extra hectare of forest.

They have deducted all income (e.g., timber production and hunting leases) to be left with a concrete value of the joy of forest ownership – or amenity value.

---

JOURNAL

Forest Policy and Economics

DOI

10.1016/j.forpol.2022.102867 

ARTICLE TITLE

Is there more to trees than timber? Estimating the private amenity value of forests using a hedonic land model for combined agricultural properties

 

Deforestation only 'displaced' under community monitoring schemes

by University of Exeter

Credit: CC0 Public Domain

Community-led monitoring of deforestation might not reduce forest use overall, but merely displace it to unmonitored areas, a new study finds.

The peer-reviewed study, by researchers including Dr. Sabrina Eisenbarth from the University of Exeter Business School, measured the impact of community-led forest monitoring on activities such as tree felling, domestic animal grazing and charcoal production in community managed forest in Uganda.

The year-long research project paid six community members from 60 communities to patrol the communal forest surrounding the village once a month.

The community monitors reported any threats to the forest every month and shared information with the wider community in village meetings, providing an opportunity for discussion around forest use and sustainability.

The research team evaluated the effect of this monitoring activity on forest use in both monitored and unmonitored areas.

They looked at a combination of detailed forest measurement on the ground and satellite data from the 60 communities and compared it to equivalent forest measurement in 50 control communities without systematic community-led monitoring.

The researchers found that community-led forest monitoring did not affect forest use overall. While forest loss decreased slightly in the monitored villages, amounting to 450 m2 of forest per village, forest use in areas adjacent to those villages, where there was no or less monitoring, rose by 300% and 150% respectively—totalling an extra 12,600 m2 of forest loss.

Nearly a third of forests across Africa, Asia and Latin America are now managed by local people and community forest management has been hailed as a powerful policy tool that could reduce deforestation—one of the main drivers of climate change.

Previous research has shown that communities can successfully manage their forests, but only if certain institutional features are in place—one of those features is community-led forest monitoring.

Monitoring helps communities find out how much forest is being cut down, punish those who cut too much and adjust norm and rules on forest use.

The research team had initially hypothesized that community monitoring would decrease forest use, with potential rule-breakers deterred by the fear of being caught and the information provided to community members driving a shift in norms over forest use, leading to a change in the official forest-use rules.

But one of the authors, Dr. Sabrina Eisenbarth, a Lecturer in Economics at the University of Exeter Business School's Land, Environment, Economics and Policy (LEEP) Institute, said the fear of being caught was potentially moving the deforestation to other areas.

"We suspect that the increase in forest loss in unmonitored areas is, at least to some extent, driven by displacement of forest use by members of treatment villages due to fear of sanctions.

"If reductions in forest use are driven by a fear of being caught rather than self-restraint, community members could merely displace forest use outside of the monitored areas and accelerate deforestation in adjacent areas."

The research team say more attention is needed to the design of conservation programs based on community monitoring in order to avoid displacement.

"If displacement is driven by a fear of sanctions, the design of a monitoring intervention might be improved if monitoring was more widespread or if community members could not predict which parts of the forest were unmonitored," said Dr. Eisenbarth.

The researchers said the success of community-monitoring schemes ultimately depends on 'community self-restraint', which might require changes in the norms and rules around forest use. The one-year community monitoring intervention did not lead to such norm-shifts.

Rise in Southeast Asia forest clearance increasing greenhouse gases

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More information: Sabrina Eisenbarth et al, Can community monitoring save the commons? Evidence on forest use and displacement, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2021). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2015172118

Journal information: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 

Provided by University of Exeter 

A Nigerian forest and its animals are under threat. Poachers have become rangers to protect both

by Taiwo Adebayo

Sunday Abiodun, 40, second from left, a former poacher turned forest ranger, sets out on patrol with other rangers inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria, on Monday, July. 31, 2023. The reserve faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

Credit: AP Photo/Sunday Alamba

Sunday Abiodun, carrying a sword in one hand and balancing a musket over his other shoulder, cleared weeds on a footpath leading to a cluster of new trees.

Until recently, it had been a spot to grow cocoa, one of several plots that Abiodun and his fellow forest rangers destroyed after farmers cut down trees to make way for the crop used to make chocolate—driving away birds in the process.

"When we see such a farm during patrol, we destroy it and plant trees instead," Abiodun said.

It could take more than 10 years for the trees to mature, he said, with the hope they ease biodiversity loss and restore habitat for birds.

He was not always enthusiastic about conservation. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun, 40, killed animals for a living, including endangered species like pangolin. He is now part of a team working to protect Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching.

The tropical rainforest, 135 kilometers (84 miles) northeast of Lagos in Nigeria's southwest, is home to threatened species including African elephants, pangolins, white-throated monkeys, yellow-casqued hornbills, long-crested eagles and chimpanzees, according to UNESCO.

Sunday Abiodun, 40, a former poacher turned forest ranger, patrols on a motorcycle inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July 31, 2023. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun killed animals for a living, including endangered species. He is now part of a team working to protect Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching. 

To protect animals and their habitat, 550 square kilometers—more than 40% of the forest—is designated as a conservation zone, said Emmanuel Olabode, project manager for the nonprofit Nigerian Conservation Foundation, which hires the rangers and acts as the government's conservation partner.

The rangers are focused on nearly 6.5 square kilometers of strictly protected land where elephants are thought to live and is a UNESCO-designated Biosphere Reserve, where communities work toward sustainable development.

"The rangers' work is crucial to conservation because this is one of the last viable habitats where we have forest elephants in Nigeria, and if the entire area is degraded, we will not have elephants again," Olabode said.

For decades, the conservation foundation has assisted in forest management, but hiring former hunters has proven to be a game changer, particularly in the fight against poaching.

Forest rangers line up as they look for poachers inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Wednesday, Aug. 2, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

"The strategy is to win the ring leaders from the anti-conservation side over for conservation purposes, with a better understanding and life that discourages them from their destructive acts against the forest resources and have them bring others to the conservation side," said Memudu Adebayo, the foundation's technical director.

For poacher-turned-ranger Abiodun, it offered a new life. He started helping the foundation protect the forest in 2017 as a volunteer but realized he needed to fully commit to the solution.

"Back then, I used to see students on excursions, researchers and tourists visit the forest to learn about the trees and animals I was killing as a hunter," he said. "So, I said to myself, 'If I continue to kill these animals for money to eat now, my own children will not see them if they also want to learn about them in the future.'"

Sunday Abiodun, 40, right, a former poacher turned forest ranger, patrols the Omos Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

He said he now sees "animals that I would have killed to sell in the past, but I cannot because I know better and would rather protect them."

Abiodun's team consists of 10 rangers, which they say is too few for the size of the forest. They established Elephants' Camp, named for rangers' top priority, deep within the protected part of the forest, where they take turns staying each week and organize patrols.

The camp has a small solar power system and a round room where the rangers can rest amid the sounds of birds and insects chirping and wind blowing through the trees. Outside, the rangers plan their work at a large wooden table beneath a perforated zinc roof.

The roughly hourlong journey from their administrative office to the camp is difficult, with a road that is impassable for vehicles and even motorcycles when it rains. But once there, ecologist Babajide Agboola, who mentors the rangers and helps document new species, declared, "This is peace."

Sunday Abiodun, 40, a former poacher turned forest ranger, armed with a cutlass, looks for poachers inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun killed animals for a living, including endangered species. He is now part of a team working to protect the Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching. 

Despite the physically taxing work, Adebayo of the Nigerian Conservation Foundation said the rangers have a better life than as poachers, where they could spend 10 days hunting with no guarantee of success.

"Now, they have a salary and other benefits, in addition to doing something good for the environment and humanity, and they can put food on the table more comfortably," Adebayo said.

The rangers have installed motion-detecting cameras on trees in the most protected part of the forest to capture footage of animals and poachers. In a 24-second video recorded in May, one elephant picks up food with its trunk near a tree at night. Other images from 2021 and 2023 also show elephants.

Poaching has not been eradicated in the forest, but rangers said they have made significant progress. They say the main challenges are now illegal settlements of cocoa farmers and loggers that are growing in the conservation areas, where it is not permitted.

A ranger shows trees recently planted at a site that was once a cocoa cultivation plot in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

Sunday Abiodun, left, a former poacher turned forest ranger, argues with an illegal logger during a patrol inside the Omo Forest Reserve Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun killed animals for a living, including endangered species. He is now part of a team working to protect Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching.

Sunday Abiodun, right, a former poacher turned forest ranger, shows trees recently planted at a site once used for cocoa cultivation, in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching.  

Forest rangers, some of them former poachers, salute during a parade in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching. 

Credit: AP Photos/Sunday Alamba

"We want the government to support our conservation effort to preserve what remains of the forest," said another poacher-turned-ranger, Johnson Adejayin. "We see people we arrested and handed over to the government return to the forest to continue illegal logging and farming. They'd just move to another part."

One official from the government's forestry department said they were not authorized to comment and another did not reply to calls and messages seeking comment.

Rangers implore communities in the forest, particularly farmers, to avoid clearing land and plant new trees. However, they called the government's enforcement of environmental regulations critical to success.

"We are losing Omo Forest at a very alarming rate," said Agboola, the ecologist, who has been visiting for eight years. "When the forest is destroyed, biodiversity and ecosystem services are lost. When you cut down trees, you cut down a climate change mitigation solution, which fuels carbon accumulation in the atmosphere."

© 2023 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without permission.


Explore furtherResearchers examine the complex interactions between timber, logging, and forest elephants

Rethinking Dry Forest Management in a Warming Climate

Sarah Hyden

October 9, 2024
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La Cueva, Santa Fe National Forest. From left to right: Sam Hitt, president of the Santa Fe Forest Coalition, Joey Smallwood M.S., environmental studies and GIS, Cristina Salvador M.S., plant ecologist at the Santa Fe Botanical Garden, Sarah Hyden, co-founder and director of The Forest Advocate, Adam Rissien M.S., environmental studies, ReWilding Manager at WildEarth Guardians, Dominick DellaSala, Ph.D., Chief Scientist at Wild Heritage. Photo: Jonathan Glass, Public Journal and co-founder of The Forest Advocate.

Recently, a group of scientists and conservation organization representatives came together for a series of field days to survey and discuss current ecological conditions on the east side of the Santa Fe National Forest. We, along with others not present on these field days, are planning on creating a conservation alternative to the Santa Fe Mountains Landscape Resiliency Project, an already-in-progress US Forest Service project primarily focused on aggressive tree cutting and prescribed fire across large sections of forest. The Forest Service’s stated purpose of the Santa Fe Mountains Project is to reduce fire risk and to restore forest “health” and “resilience,” but past cutting/burning projects have caused severe ecological damage, and the potential fire mitigation effects are questionable at best. The project is just beginning, and not many acres have been treated so far. It is still possible to alter the course of this project, and to design a holistic alternative that truly protects and restores this unique and beautiful forest that is in the process of climate transition.

The conservation alternative will also be a template for conservation projects in dry forests across the West. It will focus on the retention of water in the ecosystem through a variety of strategies, while greatly decreasing treatments that overly open up and dry out forested landscapes.

Over three days, we viewed relatively undisturbed forest, cutting and burning treatments, and forest burned from wildfire. Various types of disturbances have seriously impacted the Santa Fe Mountains ecosystem. In one area, cutting and burning treatments from 15 years ago have precipitated a dense growth of Gambel oak that is crowding out much of the pre-existing natural understory. Some of the remaining ponderosa pines in the Gambel oak thickets are turning brown, and some are dying. In the Santa Fe watershed, which over two decades ago was aggressively cut and subsequently burned twice, some hillsides appear largely barren. These areas have little understory, little biodiversity, and only similar-size seemingly low-vitality trees with not much but grasses in between.

We observed a burn area from a fire that occurred 22 years ago. We were unable to see any signs of conifer regeneration in the high severity burn area, although there are plans to investigate this further. There also appeared to be little conifer regeneration in a moderate severity section of the same fire.

Although we were already generally aware of conditions in the Santa Fe National Forest, this overview was eye-opening and alarming. Natural disturbances to an ecosystem are normal, and often beneficial, but many of these disturbances are human-caused, and the disturbed areas of our forest appear to be going onto a concerning trajectory. Wetter forests are generally still capable of substantial regeneration after disturbances, but in these dry forests, some areas appear to be type converting into shrublands after cutting and burning treatments, and possibly also after moderate and high severity fire. However, in some cases conifer regeneration in high severity burn areas can naturally take up to two decades or more in dry Southwestern forests. The influence of the combination of a rapidly changing climate and Forest Service treatments could be speeding up vegetation type shifts.

The forests of the Santa Fe Mountains appear to be in the beginning stages of advancing climate impacts. It’s a challenge to develop strategies to protect and restore forests in this situation. The agency approaches are not working – widespread cutting and overly frequent burning are creating landscapes that no longer even resemble forests, but are instead overly-open, dried-out, weed infested landscapes with little natural understory and widely spaced trees prone to blow over. Our conservation alternative will be a call to develop a new forest management paradigm for such dry forests as quickly as possible.

There may be some level of much lighter fuels reduction treatments that these forests can tolerate, but exactly what may work is presently unknown. Recent Forest Service cutting treatments have left somewhat greater residual tree densities than some of the treatments from over a decade ago, but it is unknown if that is enough to avoid serious adverse impacts, especially to forest soils and natural understories. After cutting trees, the trunks and branches are piled and burned, and pile burn scars remain for decades. Pile burning causes such high intensity heat that the natural understory does not tend to come back, and invasive weeds often appear. The Forest Service plans to cut approximately 18,000 acres during the 10-year Santa Fe Mountains Project, and if there are 20 burn piles per acre, they would be burning in the neighborhood of 360,000 piles. That would have a tremendous impact on already dried out soils.

Not nearly enough local research exists on the impacts of aggressive cutting and burning treatments on dry forest understories. It is not clear what the impacts of such treatments are on the mycorrhizal fungal networks that help to retain soil moisture. In the Santa Fe Mountains Project analysis, no references are provided for the composition of historical understories, nor is the composition of current relatively undisturbed local understories identified. Unfortunately, completely undisturbed understories rarely exist in the Santa Fe National Forest due to ongoing cattle grazing, which is permitted in most national forests across the West.

Due to the need for increased knowledge about what is happening to the ecology of this dry forest, and what conditions are optimal to preserve sections that still have adequate ecosystem function, preliminary research studies are in planning or in progress. Dr. Dominick DellaSala et al. have just completed an ecoregional conservation assessment for the southern Rockies, with a focus on the Santa Fe National Forest, which will be an underpinning of the Santa Fe Mountains conservation alternative. The authors found that the Santa Fe National Forest is lagging in terms of multiple conservation goals, and that forests far from communities are receiving treatments which neither provide community protection from wildfire nor appear to have a net ecological benefit. The assessment also projects climate change impacts on the region.

While Dr. DellaSala was in Santa Fe for the field days, he gave a very well-received talk about the ecoregional conservation assessment, at the invitation of the Santa Fe Botanical Garden. He described the impacts of overly aggressive treatments on the dry Santa Fe Mountains forest ecosystem, which he said is not forest restoration, but instead is forest degradation. He pointed out that there are no understory reference conditions, which are necessary for restoration.

This overview of Santa Fe National Forest conditions has coalesced my own views of what may be occurring in the SFNF, and what are the fundamental needs to begin to address regarding forest management in the area. My impressions are:

+ Aggressive cutting and burning are causing severe impacts to forest understories, and it’s hard to see how they can subsequently be restored to a more natural landscape.

+ Moderate to high severity fire could possibly cause ecosystem type conversion in this dry forest. More research is needed regarding post-fire conifer regeneration after high severity fire in this area.

+ Our challenge is to balance the important role of fire on our landscapes vs. possibly increasing impacts of fire on our landscapes.

+ In areas where water retention has been increased by holistic restoration projects, or is already adequate, managing lightning ignitions under safe conditions for ecosystem benefits may be a reasonable option. Limited and carefully implemented prescribed burns may be necessary near communities where managed wildfire may not be acceptable to community members, but the optimal conditions for such burns still need to be determined.

+ Most restoration in this area should be focused on retaining moisture in the ecosystem, instead of drying it out further by aggressive cutting which dries out soils and understory vegetation, and over-burning which suppresses the natural understory. Higher vegetation moisture content reduces flammability. The focus of treatments should be primarily on maintaining ecosystem integrity and function; these forests need approaches that are different from extensive vegetation removal in an attempt to mitigate fire behavior and to match forest structure to agency estimates of historical forest structure.

+ Much more research is needed concerning the impacts of any kinds of disturbances on soils, understory vegetation, and conifer regeneration. It is necessary to have relatively intact understory references in order to consider desired understory conditions.

+ Serious consideration should be given to the effects of forest cutting and burning treatments on mycorrhizal fungi, and maintaining viable mycorrhizal fungi in soils should be a focus.

+ Consideration should be given to determining optimal times and methods in which to implement any potential cutting or burning treatments. Such treatments, if they occur, should be well-considered, strategic, limited, light-handed and include strategies to maintain a relatively natural understory.

+ More attention should be given to modifying human behaviors in forests that can cause fires to ignite.

+ An environmental impact statement should be completed for the Santa Fe Mountains Project to provide a framework in which to do a thorough analysis of the effects of disturbances on this ecologically precarious project landscape, given that effects of disturbances are very different than from even a decade or two ago. All of the adverse impacts of the recent two decades of fuels treatments must be taken into account, including the burning of 387,000 acres of forest from three separate SFNF escaped prescribed burns in 2022.

+ A moratorium on most cutting and burning treatments in the Santa Fe National Forest should be considered until the impacts of treatments during the rapid climate transition have been fully analyzed, and until updated and holistic forest management strategies are developed.

Hillside in Black Canyon, cut in the early 2000’s and burned twice. Photo: Sarah Hyden.

Old Growth in Pacheco Canyon, untreated. Photo: Sarah Hyden.

Santa Fe Municipal Watershed north of the Canada de los Alamos Forest, cut in the early 2000’s and burned twice. Photo: Sarah Hyden.

Gambel oak overgrowth in La Cueva canyon, cut 15 years ago and subsequently burned. It is a fuel break, but it was cut to a similar density of other projects of that time. This photo is from October of 2023, and conditions have not appreciably changed. The Gambel oak overgrowth extends throughout most of the treated area. Photo: Sarah Hyden.

2002 Dalton Fire high severity burn area, next to unburned forest. Little conifer regeneration can be seen. Photo: Sarah Hyden.

Map of field trip sites visited. Blue perimeter represents the Santa Fe Municipal Watershed boundary. Map composite by Jonathan Glass, Public Journal. Base map: ESRI National Geographic.

 

Sarah Hyden has been working to protect the Santa Fe National Forest for well over a decade. She was a co-founder of the Santa Fe Forest Coalition and was the WildEarth Guardians’ Santa Fe National Forest Advocate. In 2019, she co-founded The Forest Advocate, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to protection of the Santa Fe National Forest and all western forests. The Forest Advocate maintains an active website that publishes forest advocacy news and resources — theforestadvocate.org.