What is forest bathing?

Forest bathing is a mindful, meditative practice.

By Kirsten McEwan published 1 day ago

Forest bathing involves using your senses to notice your surroundings while out in nature. 

(Image credit: Godong / Contributor via Getty Images)

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What does forest bathing look like?
How is it different from a normal nature walk?
Origins
Benefits
Mechanism and "dosage"
Find forest bathing guides
Bibliography

Forest bathing, or shinrin-yoku in Japanese, means to soak in the forest through all of your senses. In practice, forest bathing can be a slow, mindful walk in nature, where you pay close attention to your surroundings using your senses (e.g. sight, smell, hearing, touch). There is no destination or goal, other than to notice and appreciate your surroundings.

Forest bathing, which originated in Japan in the 1980s, can be practiced alone. However, it is often helpful to try the first few times with a guide who can suggest new ways of enhancing your senses and prompt you to notice your surroundings.

Related: What is mental health?

WHAT DOES FOREST BATHING LOOK LIKE?

Forest bathing involves using your senses to notice your surroundings. For example, this may include noticing the different colors and patterns of leaves; noticing movement in the tree canopy or on the surface of water; viewing a natural scene or finding a "sit spot" from which to observe nature; smelling fallen leaves and soil; listening to the sound of the wind through the trees, running water or bird song; or noticing textures by touching bark, leaves and moss.

Although most of the walk is conducted in silence so that you can pay full attention to your surroundings, a guide can offer opportunities to share the interesting things you notice. Other people’s observations can also inspire you to look for new things, such as the fallen leaf that smelled like cinnamon, for instance.

Often the guide ends the session by inviting people to spend time with a preferred tree or a view or by leading a mindfulness activity that involves noticing your surroundings through all the senses in turn. (Broadly speaking, "mindfulness" refers to the act of bringing your attention to what you're doing in the present moment.)

Some guides end the session by offering a foraged tea to experience the sense of taste in the forest.

HOW IS FOREST BATHING DIFFERENT FROM A TYPICAL WALK IN NATURE?

Even for those who already love the outdoors, forest bathing often differs dramatically from their usual experience of being in nature.

On a typical nature walk, you might be moving quickly to cover distance, chatting with a friend, walking the dog, listening to music, checking your phone or simply being distracted by your thoughts. In contrast, in a guided forest bathing session, the guide plans a route that provides opportunities to notice nature using all the senses, sets a slower pace and provides prompts to keep you in your senses rather than inside your busy head. The guide will suggest different ways to enhance our senses to help you notice the small details of your surroundings that you would normally miss on a typical walk.

ORIGINS OF FOREST BATHING

Forest bathing originated in Japan, where the practice is called shinrin-yoku. The translation into English is "forest bathing," and a bit like the term "sun bathing," the idea is that you "bathe" in the atmosphere of the forest by noticing your surroundings and breathing in the oxygen and wood oils let off by the trees.

Japan has a long cultural history of valuing nature through Shintoism, a religion that centers around the idea that divine spirits or "kami" are manifested in everything in nature, taking the form of the trees, rocks, mountains, sea and animals, according to the Asia Society(opens in new tab).

In the 1980s, when the Japanese government realized they had a problem with stressed workers who were experiencing too much screen-time — or "techno-stress" — the government invested in forest bathing as a solution, protecting woodland and establishing 62 forest bathing clinics. Forest bathing became available on prescription, so when patients visit their doctor because of stress or high blood pressure, they may be given the option to take medication or try forest bathing, according to "Shinrin Yoku: The Japanese Art of Forest Bathing(opens in new tab)" (Li, 2018).

 
BENEFITS OF FOREST BATHING

Since 2004, the Japanese government has invested $4.3 million in 62 clinics offering forest bathing as a public health treatment, according to "Shinrin Yoku: The Japanese Art of Forest Bathing." The science about the benefits of forest bathing came later with Japanese researchers such as Qing Li and Yoshifumi Miyazaki leading the way in proving what people intuitively knew: that spending time in nature is good for you.

So far, research has shown that forest bathing can improve several aspects of a person's health. For example, research published in February 2021 in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health(opens in new tab) showed a decrease in systolic blood pressure after 12 healthy volunteers practiced forest bathing for a two-hour stint. In a research article published in October 2018 in the journal Frontiers in Public Health(opens in new tab), scientists showed improvements in heart rate variability — a measure of cardiovascular health — in 485 male participants while walking in a forest for just 15 minutes.

Research published in February 2018 in the journal Biomedical and Environmental Sciences(opens in new tab), found reduced biomarkers of chronic heart failure, inflammation and oxidative stress in elderly chronic heart failure patients after they participated in two four-day forest bathing trips. Researchers also found that a five-day forest trip improved immune system health, as indicated by an increase in natural killer cells, which are part of the body's defence against cancer, they reported in March 2018 in the journal Oncotarget(opens in new tab).

Research has also found that forest bathing offers psychological benefits. In a review of 20 research studies published July 2022 in the International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction(opens in new tab), researchers found consistent improvements in mood, especially anxiety, following forest bathing sessions. In January 2021 researchers published an article in the journal Sustainability(opens in new tab), revealing reductions in anxiety and rumination about problems, and increases in social connection and prosocial values such as feeling compassion for others in 61 volunteers, after two hours of forest bathing.

 
HOW DOES IT WORK AND WHAT'S THE DOSE?

In researcher Li’s book "Shinrin-Yoku: The Art and Science of Forest Bathing," he describes how 50% of the benefit of forest bathing comes from breathing in the essential oils given out by evergreen trees. His research suggests that forest bathing for two hours daily and breathing in the wood oils, known as phytoncides, is linked to an increase in the number and activity of natural killer cells in the body. This research led to guidance about the correct "dose" of forest bathing: at least two hours every month.

(Different tree species produce different phytoncides, and more research is needed to understand whether trees native to different regions of the world offer specific benefits, according to the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation(opens in new tab).)

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Research published in the journal Scientific Reports(opens in new tab) in 2019 found that spending two hours in nature per week produces the greatest noticeable improvements in well-being, measured as a change in self-reported health and well-being. However, don’t worry if you can’t spend two hours in one go forest bathing, because the same study found that shorter visits to nature — as short as 20 minutes per day adding up to two hours per week — were still really beneficial to a person's health and well-being.

According to research published in the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health(opens in new tab) in 2021, levels of the stress hormone cortisol typically decrease in people's blood after just 15 minutes of forest bathing. And there are many forest bathing guides who notice it takes about 20 minutes for people to slow down, relax and connect with their surroundings during a session, so give yourself at least 20 minutes each day to connect with nature in your garden, local park, forest or any other type of natural environment that appeals to you.

WHERE CAN I FIND FOREST BATHING GUIDES NEAR ME?

Forest bathing guides can offer in-person forest bathing walks or if you are currently experiencing low energy or limited mobility, some guides offer online forest bathing experiences.

You can find a trained guide near you by using the certified guide maps on the Association of Nature and Forest Therapy(opens in new tab) website and Forest Therapy Hub(opens in new tab) website.

For forest bathing in New York City, check out the New York Botanical Garden in the Bronx(opens in new tab).

For forest bathing across Washington DC, perhaps try a guided walk with naturalist and author Melanie Choukas-Bradley(opens in new tab).

You can also search MeetUp.com(opens in new tab) or EventBrite.com(opens in new tab) to find guides near you.

For those with low energy or limited mobility there are online(opens in new tab) forest bathing sessions.

If you’d rather try forest bathing on your own, there are audio(opens in new tab) and visual(opens in new tab) guides to get you started.

BIBLIOGRAPHY


Jones, R., Tarter, R., Ross, A.M. (2021). Greenspace Interventions, Stress and Cortisol: A Scoping Review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(6):2802. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18062802(opens in new tab)


Kobayashi, H., Song, C., Ikei, H., Park, B-J., Lee, J., Kagawa, T., Miyazaki (2018). Forest Walking Affects Autonomic Nervous Activity: A Population-Based Study. Frontiers in Public Health, 6, https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2018.00278(opens in new tab)


Kotera, Y., Richardson, M. & Sheffield, D. (2022). Effects of Shinrin-Yoku (Forest Bathing) and Nature Therapy on Mental Health: a Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. International Journal of Mental Health and Addiction, 20, 337–361. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00363-4(opens in new tab)


Li, Q. (2018). Shinrin-Yoku: The Art and Science of Forest Bathing’. Penguin Life. (ISBN13: 9780241346952)


Mao, G.X., Cao, Y.B., Yang, Y., Chen, Z.M., Dong, J.H., Chen, S.S., Wu, Q., Lyu, X.L., Jia, B.B. Yan, J., Wang, G.F. (2018). Additive Benefits of Twice Forest Bathing Trips in Elderly Patients with Chronic Heart Failure, Biomedical and Environmental Sciences, 31,2, 159-162. https://doi.org/10.3967/bes2018.020(opens in new tab)


McEwan, K., Giles, D., Clarke, F.J., Kotera, Y., Evans, G., Terebenina, O., Minou, L., Teeling, C., Basran, J., Wood, W., Weil, D. (2021). A Pragmatic Controlled Trial of Forest Bathing Compared with Compassionate Mind Training in the UK: Impacts on Self-Reported Wellbeing and Heart Rate Variability. Sustainability. 13(3):1380. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13031380(opens in new tab)


Miyazaki, H. (2018). Shinrin-yoku: the Japanese way of forest bathing for health and relaxation. Aster. (ISBN13: 1912023512)


NYS Dept. of Environmental Conservation. (n.d.). Immerse yourself in a forest for Better Health. Immerse Yourself in a Forest for Better Health . Retrieved June 24, 2022, from https://www.dec.ny.gov/lands/90720.html (opens in new tab)


Peterfalvi, A., Meggyes, M., Makszin, L., Farkas, N., Miko, E., Miseta, A., Szereday, L. (2021). Forest Bathing Always Makes Sense: Blood Pressure-Lowering and Immune System-Balancing Effects in Late Spring and Winter in Central Europe. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(4):2067. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18042067(opens in new tab)


Tsao, T., Tsai, M., Hwang, J., Cheng, W., Wu, C., Chou, C., Su, T. (2018). Health effects of a forest environment on natural killer cells in humans: an observational pilot study. Oncotarget, 9, 16501-16511. https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.24741(opens in new tab)


White, M.P., Alcock, I., Grellier, J., Wheeler, B.W., Hartig, T., Warber, S.L., Bone, A., Depledge, M.H., Fleming, L.E. (2019). Spending at least 120 minutes a week in nature is associated with good health and wellbeing. Science Reports, 9, 7730. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-019-44097-3(opens in new tab)


This article is for informational purposes only, and is not meant to offer medical advice.


Originally published on Live Science.

Kirsten McEwan Live Science Contributor

Kirsten McEwan is a research psychologist and associate professor of health and wellbeing at the University of Derby in the U.K. She is happiest spending time in nature and unites her passion for the outdoors with health and wellbeing research as a forest bathing researcher and practitioner. For the last 20 years, she has worked in hospitals and universities evaluating the effectiveness of health and well-being treatments. Most of her research has centered on talk therapies for mental health, such as Compassion-Focused Therapy. Her current research largely focuses on evaluating the effectiveness of forest bathing and making it accessible to a wider swath of the population.

Bengal: Who’s Responsible For Raging Forest Fires in Bankura?

Madhu Sudan Chatterjee | 22 May 2024 | NEWSCLICK INDIA

Locals indicate a pattern in the fires across Jangal Mahal that are leading to trees disappearing, and large-scale destruction of various animal species.





Burning Susunia Hill Bankura


The fire was raging in the forest of Bankura in Jangal Mahal, with the flames spreading rapidly due to wind pressure. The eerie silence of the forest was often broken by the melodious yet pitiful sounds of various bird species, desperately trying to survive. Amidst the heat of the fire and coils of smoke, animals, such as hares, deer, porcupines, wild boars, and various species of snakes, could be seen fleeing. But, where would they find shelter?

After a long wait, the fire brigade’s alarm was finally heard. It took 10-15 hours for them to extinguish the fire. In the aftermath, amid the thick smoke, the scorched ground was littered with dead porcupines, birds, snakes, rabbits, wild boars, and foxes. The insects had turned into ashes.

This terrible scene of forest fires has spread across the Jangal Mahal area of Bankura district. The frequency of these fires is increasing every year, says locals. But, why is this so? The answer lies in the sequence of events in Jangal Mahal after the fire was extinguished. The administration, forest department, local panchayat, and elected representatives at the Assembly and Parliament levels, all aware of the situation, remained silent observers.
Forest Area of Bankura and its Greening History

The current forest area of Bankura and how the once-destroyed forest became greener have been in the news. It is well-documented that until the late 1970s, Bankura district was one of the most economically backward districts in West Bengal. Thousands of hectares of land lay uncultivated; there were no irrigation facilities. Agricultural production, including rice and potatoes, had reached its lowest point, and for a long time.

Bankura district had no industry. Due to this dire economic structure, the poor and marginalised people had no work and were unable to buy rice at high prices from the black market. JyansankarMitra, a senior citizen and former sabhadhipati (head) of Bankura Zilla Parishad, told this writer that approximately 70% of the population in the district faced food shortages. Poor and jobless people from villages and towns used to often stage protests at Block Development Offices, demanding a meagre 2 kilograms of wheat or rice. People were suffering from extreme malnutrition. Several residents who witnessed that period recalled a saying, "Kangali Bhojon" (poor person's lunch), indicating that during festivals at wealthy families' homes, poor people would rush to get a full meal.

With no alternative sources of income, these poor villagers became dependent on the forest. They collected forest resources and sold them, and even cut down tree branches and trees. Unscrupulous wood traders took advantage of their poverty, paying them small wages for this work. The Forest Department was unable to stop this, and the government paid no attention. As a result, the forests of Bankura were rapidly destroyed. By the end of 1977, the forest area of the district had shrunk to only 12%.

After the Left Front government came to power in Bengal in 1977, the Land Reform Act was implemented. As per the Act, land exceeding the ceiling was transferred to the state government's land department. Much of this land had been held by landlords under the names of family members and others, without being cultivated.

After legally reclaiming these lands, the Left Front government distributed them among the poor landless people as patta (permanent settlement of land). A three-tier panchayat system was created. The panchayat and various government departments introduced several schemes to help the poor landholders. Agricultural production increased within three years, and the poverty levels began to decrease.

Along with land reform, an initiative to rebuild the forest of the district was undertaken in the name of ‘social forestry’. Various species of trees, including teak, Akashmoni, eucalyptus, sandalwood, and banyan, were planted across Bankura's forest area. Seed nurseries were established in several places within the district. The panchayat, Forest Department, and Horticulture Department jointly carried out this work.

"At that time, it was a great challenge for us, but we were committed to rebuilding the greenery," said Subrata Goswami, a retired ranger of the Bankura Panchet Forest Division.

Recalling that period, Nayan Hansda, a 75-year-old resident of Sutan village in Ranibandh, recalls that the destroyed forest turned green within four to five years. The greenery spread in areas including Joypur, Patrasayer, Sonamukhi, Barjora, Taldangra, Bishnupur, and Sarenga. He said Forest Protection Committees (FPC) were created with approval from the Forest Department. Women and men from forest-adjacent areas were made members of these committees. The forest staff, including bit and range officers, held monthly meetings with them. The panchayat also maintained contact. Villagers could collect forest fruits, flowers, leaves, and fallen branches. Additionally, the committee members received 25% of the selling price after cutting mature trees to protect the forest.

"The Forest Department built community centres, wells, playgrounds and school buildings for the villages. Members were given umbrellas and winter clothes," Sunil Basuli, a retired range officer of Barjora Range told this writer.

"A family relationship developed between forest staff and FPC members. As a result of their 24-hour vigilance, there was no damage to the forest. It grew rapidly and turned dense. Peacocks, deer, rabbits, and various snake species could be seen. Herds of elephants from Dalma started coming to Bankura forest in 1984," he recalled.

According to satellite observation, the total forest area of Bankura district, comprising three divisions—Bankura (North), Bankura (South), and Panchet Division—is about 1,463.56 km², covering 21.27% of the total land area of the district, compared with Bengal's overall forest coverage of 18.96%.
Is Forest Greenery Gradually Decreasing?

Over the past five years, from mid-February to the end of May, miscreants have been setting fire in various parts of Bankura forest. The pattern of these fires suggests a deliberate and coordinated effort, as the fires are set in areas densely populated with valuable trees like Sal, teak, and Akashmoni. After the fires are extinguished, the burned trees mysteriously disappear within a week. Where are these valuable trees going? Despite knowing about these fires, the concerned range offices are not filing First Information Reports (FIRs) with any police station. Why?

A few days ago, the Baromile Jungle of Ranibandh forest, which covers the largest forest area in Bankura district, was burning. This area, located on the way from Ranibandh to Jhilimili, has experienced similar fires at the same time for the past five years. The flames spread from the roadside deep into the Baromile forest. Despite the fire brigade's efforts, the fire continued for 24 hours.

Fifteen days ago, a similar fire occurred in Barjora forest, where four fire brigade engines from Bankura and Durgapur tried to douse the flames. The trees in the forest were left standing, blackened and scorched. Similar incidents have been reported in Joypur, Patrasayer, Bishnupur, Basudebpur, Kanchanpur, Sonamukhi, Beliatore, Gangajalghati, Mankanali, Taldangra, and Sarenga forests—major forest areas in the district.

Additionally, many small and medium-sized natural and planted forests have been set on fire. Not a single forest area has been free of such fires. Even Susunia Hill, a prominent mountain climbing centre in Bengal, and the ancient Bamnisini hills of Ranibandh have not been spared. These hills, which are 400 meters in height, have seen fires continuously for years due to their valuable trees. Locals allege that most of the trees were burned and looted.

“For five months, several forests have been on fire almost every day. There are only six fire stations in Bankura district, with a limited number of workers and no new recruitments. Sometimes, we are late in reaching the locations,” Khalid Ansary, an officer at the Bankura fire station, told this writer He added that if news of fires comes from 10 places simultaneously, it is impossible to reach all of them.

When asked why the forest was constantly seeing fire during these four months, Divisional Forest Officers (DFO) Umar Imam of Bankura North and Pradip Bauri of Bankura South said the exact reasons were unclear. However, many unknown travellers or locals smoke in the forest and carelessly discard burning cigarettes and bidis, igniting the dry forest. They also mentioned that some people start fires for amusement. The forest department is promoting awareness to prevent such actions and is keeping a vigil on this matter.

Former Range Officer Sunil Basuli said, “During the Left Front period, even a small fire in the forest would result in an FIR being filed with the local police station by the concerned bit or range office, and a copy of the FIR would be sent to the forest department headquarters. I do not know if this happens now.”

He said earlier, FPC members used to protect the forest. They held annual general meetings to elect office bearers, but such meetings have not occurred for several years. FPC members have lost contact with the forest department.

Jadunath Saren, an FPC member of Dalangora under Taldangra block, said that while the committee was officially active, it was practically non-existent. Several FPC members across the district allege that ruling Trinamool Congress activists have taken over, leading to local disappointment and reluctance to risk their lives to save the forest.

“There have been no new appointments for 12 years. How can two forest staff monitor such a vast area?” said a forest staff member from Ranibandh who wished to remain anonymous. As a result, trees are being looted indiscriminately after fires and in normal conditions. Many medicinal plants are dying due to deforestation, and numerous porcupines have perished on Susunia Hill. Many animals, including deer, snakes, wild boars, and rabbits, are dying. A few days ago, three deer died in the Baromile forest fire in Ranibandh, he said.

Towards the end of the monsoon, the forest produces several species of mushrooms around the bases of trees, which are in high demand due to their taste and market value. Local women collect these mushrooms to sell in the market. Many women from forested areas of the district have reported that mushroom production is decreasing due to the burning soil, negatively impacting their livelihoods.

Professor Asis Bhattacharya, former Head of the Department of Zoology at Bankura Sammilani College, told this writer that forest fires harm biodiversity and the ecological system. Many birds that eat the fruits of medicinal plants help those plants regenerate by spreading their seeds through defecation. These birds are dying in the fires, preventing the growth of new plants. Furthermore, increased carbon in the air from the fires can cause respiratory and skin diseases among local residents.

The deep forest created by the people of Bankura has made the district known as ‘Jangal Mahal’ (Forest Palace) in Bengal. However, if the forests continue to be destroyed at this rate, will Bankura still be known as Jangal Mahal?

The writer covers the Jangal Mahal region for Bengali daily ‘Ganashakti’ in West Bengal.

Image credit: Madhu Sudan Chatterjee

Putting a price tag on the amenity value of private forests

Peer-Reviewed Publication

UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN - FACULTY OF SCIENCE

 

IMAGE: MARIE LAUTRUP view more 

CREDIT: PHOTO: COPENHAGEN UNIVERSITY

When it comes to venturing into and enjoying nature, forests are the people’s top choice – at least in Denmark. This is also reflected in the sales prices of properties with private forest. But beyond earnings potential, this first study of its kind, conducted by the University of Copenhagen, puts a price tag on the so-called amenity value of Danish private forests.

Forests have a nearly therapeutic effect on humans. Perhaps that is why eight out of ten of Danes have wandered in the woods over the last year and trends like forest bathing are gaining in popularity. Most people have probably experienced relaxing their shoulders, deepening their breathing, and found peace while being immersed in the deep, quiet tranquility of a forest.

While there is nothing novel about venturing into the woods to find peace of mind, the value of forests for Danes is fully intact. Studies by the Danish Outdoor Council and UCPH’s Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, among others, have shown that Danes prefer forest outings over trips to the beach or wandering open fields and meadows.

Forest owners are quite aware of this as well. A new study by researchers at the University of Copenhagen’s Department of Food and Resource Economics investigated the amenity value of private forest ownership. It turns out that there are good reasons to buy (or plant) private forest for anyone interested in increasing the quality of their and their family’s life – or increase their property value, as the amenity value is clearly reflected in the sales prices of rural properties.

"We see a fairly significant difference in the price of rural homes with and without forested areas larger than half a hectare. In fact, we see an increased value of DKK 25,000-75,000 per hectare of private forest, less the income opportunities from the forest," says Marie Lautrup of the Department of Food and Resource Economics, the study’s lead author.

Using large data sets, Lautrup and her colleagues were able to exclude other rural home factors that might otherwise explain their increased value, thereby excluding the forest's potential as a source of income from forestry, hunting leases, etc., from the equation.

"In this way, we isolated this intangible amenity value of private forests and put a price tag on it," says the researcher.

She hopes that the findings can be used by public authorities and lawmakers to target government support and incentives to establish and conserve private forest.

The bigger the forest, the greater its amenity value

Most forests in Denmark are owned by private landholders. Proprietorship is divided into many small forest owners and a few people who own a lot. According to Marie Lautrup, forest owners have a great influence on the landscape that Danes live and go about in. As such, it was interesting for her to investigate the values private forest owners attribute to their forests.

"Fortunately, we can see that private forest owners are like most people when it comes to forests. In particular, they love deciduous forests and their tall and thereby older trees. So, they have an incentive to manage their forest with the same interests in mind, and thus with the same values as the rest of society. So far so good," says Marie Lautrup.

But why do they have forest – is it just to make money? The researchers sought answers to this question as well. The conclusion was that forest holds great value for private owners, beyond its capital value.

"In fact, the figures in our study demonstrate that regardless of whether it is a small or a slightly larger forest, the sale price is characterized by a value attributed to it by the owner's pure joy of the forest, i.e., its perceived amenity value. We haven’t accounted for all forest sizes in the study, but based on the data we have, it seems that any increase in value follows forest size. The more, the better," says Marie Lautrup.

Can help increase Danish forest area

The researchers hope that politicians and public authorities will be able to use the study to target legislation on deductions and subsidies related to forest management and afforestation efforts.

For example, the results can be used to accelerate ordinary people's efforts to increase Denmark's forest area, because establishing small forests is a good investment.

"In Denmark, we have a political goal of reaching 20-25% forested area by the end of the 21st century. The remaining 5-10% can be obtained by encouraging private landowners to plant forests, among other things. Traditionally, it has been difficult to put the public subsidy pool to use," explains Marie Lautrup and continues:

"Those who receive forest subsidies tend to be the large forest owners. So, if you want to boost private forest development, you may need to get hold of the slightly smaller owners. Here, the study clearly shows that it creates value, both in terms of quality of life, but also financially, to become a small forest owner," she says.

Planting forests of a certain size in Denmark may also make them fall under the Danish Forest Act. The 1805 law prohibits forests from being cleared and came into being at a time when Denmark lacked wood to build warships, among other things.

According to Marie Lautrup, increasing the forested area of Denmark has several advantages. On the one hand, it will increase forest access for Danes, as private forests are open to all during daytime, so long as paths are used, except for in very small forests.

At the same time, it could play a role in Denmark's efforts to reduce atmospheric CO2, as trees are natural CO2 capturers.

 

Facts: What is amenity value?

Amenity value is something that cannot be immediately sold in a market, for example timber and hunting leases.

It can be understood as qualities in a place or environment that make it attractive to use, e.g. in connection with the importance of scenic surroundings for a home's sales value

 

Facts: Danes prefer forests

• Forests have clearly occupied first place as a destination for outdoors life over the past 30 years, despite many other new types of leisure and experiences.
• Studies conducted by the Danish Outdoor Council have also shown that forest trips and picnics are Danes' favorite experience in nature, ahead of, for example, visits to the beach and meadows. 78% of Danes visited forests over the past six months
• According to a previous study by the Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, approximatively 70 million visits are made by Danes to the forest annually – an average of 30-40 times per person.

 

About the study

The study is based on property registers, map data and accounting data, and shows correspondence – or correlation – between privately-owned forest and sales prices of rural properties, which reveal a measurable amenity value of private forest.

The researchers have analysed an increased amenity value per additional hectare of forest of DKK 25,000-75,000. And higher still for the smallest rural homes.

By statistically comparing similar rural homes, the researchers were able to identify the impact of a wide range of characteristics on rural home sales prices, including forested areas of at least half a hectare.

(Both data availability and the official definition of forest have placed constraints on the study — there must be more than half an acre of trees of a certain height before it counts in the statistics.)

In this way, the researchers concluded that forest has a significant positive impact on the sales price and been able to estimate the average value of an extra hectare of forest.

They have deducted all income (e.g., timber production and hunting leases) to be left with a concrete value of the joy of forest ownership – or amenity value.

---

JOURNAL

Forest Policy and Economics

DOI

10.1016/j.forpol.2022.102867 

ARTICLE TITLE

Is there more to trees than timber? Estimating the private amenity value of forests using a hedonic land model for combined agricultural properties

 

Deforestation only 'displaced' under community monitoring schemes

by University of Exeter

Credit: CC0 Public Domain

Community-led monitoring of deforestation might not reduce forest use overall, but merely displace it to unmonitored areas, a new study finds.

The peer-reviewed study, by researchers including Dr. Sabrina Eisenbarth from the University of Exeter Business School, measured the impact of community-led forest monitoring on activities such as tree felling, domestic animal grazing and charcoal production in community managed forest in Uganda.

The year-long research project paid six community members from 60 communities to patrol the communal forest surrounding the village once a month.

The community monitors reported any threats to the forest every month and shared information with the wider community in village meetings, providing an opportunity for discussion around forest use and sustainability.

The research team evaluated the effect of this monitoring activity on forest use in both monitored and unmonitored areas.

They looked at a combination of detailed forest measurement on the ground and satellite data from the 60 communities and compared it to equivalent forest measurement in 50 control communities without systematic community-led monitoring.

The researchers found that community-led forest monitoring did not affect forest use overall. While forest loss decreased slightly in the monitored villages, amounting to 450 m2 of forest per village, forest use in areas adjacent to those villages, where there was no or less monitoring, rose by 300% and 150% respectively—totalling an extra 12,600 m2 of forest loss.

Nearly a third of forests across Africa, Asia and Latin America are now managed by local people and community forest management has been hailed as a powerful policy tool that could reduce deforestation—one of the main drivers of climate change.

Previous research has shown that communities can successfully manage their forests, but only if certain institutional features are in place—one of those features is community-led forest monitoring.

Monitoring helps communities find out how much forest is being cut down, punish those who cut too much and adjust norm and rules on forest use.

The research team had initially hypothesized that community monitoring would decrease forest use, with potential rule-breakers deterred by the fear of being caught and the information provided to community members driving a shift in norms over forest use, leading to a change in the official forest-use rules.

But one of the authors, Dr. Sabrina Eisenbarth, a Lecturer in Economics at the University of Exeter Business School's Land, Environment, Economics and Policy (LEEP) Institute, said the fear of being caught was potentially moving the deforestation to other areas.

"We suspect that the increase in forest loss in unmonitored areas is, at least to some extent, driven by displacement of forest use by members of treatment villages due to fear of sanctions.

"If reductions in forest use are driven by a fear of being caught rather than self-restraint, community members could merely displace forest use outside of the monitored areas and accelerate deforestation in adjacent areas."

The research team say more attention is needed to the design of conservation programs based on community monitoring in order to avoid displacement.

"If displacement is driven by a fear of sanctions, the design of a monitoring intervention might be improved if monitoring was more widespread or if community members could not predict which parts of the forest were unmonitored," said Dr. Eisenbarth.

The researchers said the success of community-monitoring schemes ultimately depends on 'community self-restraint', which might require changes in the norms and rules around forest use. The one-year community monitoring intervention did not lead to such norm-shifts.

Rise in Southeast Asia forest clearance increasing greenhouse gases

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More information: Sabrina Eisenbarth et al, Can community monitoring save the commons? Evidence on forest use and displacement, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (2021). DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2015172118

Journal information: Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 

Provided by University of Exeter 

A Nigerian forest and its animals are under threat. Poachers have become rangers to protect both

by Taiwo Adebayo

Sunday Abiodun, 40, second from left, a former poacher turned forest ranger, sets out on patrol with other rangers inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria, on Monday, July. 31, 2023. The reserve faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

Credit: AP Photo/Sunday Alamba

Sunday Abiodun, carrying a sword in one hand and balancing a musket over his other shoulder, cleared weeds on a footpath leading to a cluster of new trees.

Until recently, it had been a spot to grow cocoa, one of several plots that Abiodun and his fellow forest rangers destroyed after farmers cut down trees to make way for the crop used to make chocolate—driving away birds in the process.

"When we see such a farm during patrol, we destroy it and plant trees instead," Abiodun said.

It could take more than 10 years for the trees to mature, he said, with the hope they ease biodiversity loss and restore habitat for birds.

He was not always enthusiastic about conservation. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun, 40, killed animals for a living, including endangered species like pangolin. He is now part of a team working to protect Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching.

The tropical rainforest, 135 kilometers (84 miles) northeast of Lagos in Nigeria's southwest, is home to threatened species including African elephants, pangolins, white-throated monkeys, yellow-casqued hornbills, long-crested eagles and chimpanzees, according to UNESCO.

Sunday Abiodun, 40, a former poacher turned forest ranger, patrols on a motorcycle inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July 31, 2023. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun killed animals for a living, including endangered species. He is now part of a team working to protect Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching. 

To protect animals and their habitat, 550 square kilometers—more than 40% of the forest—is designated as a conservation zone, said Emmanuel Olabode, project manager for the nonprofit Nigerian Conservation Foundation, which hires the rangers and acts as the government's conservation partner.

The rangers are focused on nearly 6.5 square kilometers of strictly protected land where elephants are thought to live and is a UNESCO-designated Biosphere Reserve, where communities work toward sustainable development.

"The rangers' work is crucial to conservation because this is one of the last viable habitats where we have forest elephants in Nigeria, and if the entire area is degraded, we will not have elephants again," Olabode said.

For decades, the conservation foundation has assisted in forest management, but hiring former hunters has proven to be a game changer, particularly in the fight against poaching.

Forest rangers line up as they look for poachers inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Wednesday, Aug. 2, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

"The strategy is to win the ring leaders from the anti-conservation side over for conservation purposes, with a better understanding and life that discourages them from their destructive acts against the forest resources and have them bring others to the conservation side," said Memudu Adebayo, the foundation's technical director.

For poacher-turned-ranger Abiodun, it offered a new life. He started helping the foundation protect the forest in 2017 as a volunteer but realized he needed to fully commit to the solution.

"Back then, I used to see students on excursions, researchers and tourists visit the forest to learn about the trees and animals I was killing as a hunter," he said. "So, I said to myself, 'If I continue to kill these animals for money to eat now, my own children will not see them if they also want to learn about them in the future.'"

Sunday Abiodun, 40, right, a former poacher turned forest ranger, patrols the Omos Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

He said he now sees "animals that I would have killed to sell in the past, but I cannot because I know better and would rather protect them."

Abiodun's team consists of 10 rangers, which they say is too few for the size of the forest. They established Elephants' Camp, named for rangers' top priority, deep within the protected part of the forest, where they take turns staying each week and organize patrols.

The camp has a small solar power system and a round room where the rangers can rest amid the sounds of birds and insects chirping and wind blowing through the trees. Outside, the rangers plan their work at a large wooden table beneath a perforated zinc roof.

The roughly hourlong journey from their administrative office to the camp is difficult, with a road that is impassable for vehicles and even motorcycles when it rains. But once there, ecologist Babajide Agboola, who mentors the rangers and helps document new species, declared, "This is peace."

Sunday Abiodun, 40, a former poacher turned forest ranger, armed with a cutlass, looks for poachers inside the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun killed animals for a living, including endangered species. He is now part of a team working to protect the Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching. 

Despite the physically taxing work, Adebayo of the Nigerian Conservation Foundation said the rangers have a better life than as poachers, where they could spend 10 days hunting with no guarantee of success.

"Now, they have a salary and other benefits, in addition to doing something good for the environment and humanity, and they can put food on the table more comfortably," Adebayo said.

The rangers have installed motion-detecting cameras on trees in the most protected part of the forest to capture footage of animals and poachers. In a 24-second video recorded in May, one elephant picks up food with its trunk near a tree at night. Other images from 2021 and 2023 also show elephants.

Poaching has not been eradicated in the forest, but rangers said they have made significant progress. They say the main challenges are now illegal settlements of cocoa farmers and loggers that are growing in the conservation areas, where it is not permitted.

A ranger shows trees recently planted at a site that was once a cocoa cultivation plot in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching. 

Sunday Abiodun, left, a former poacher turned forest ranger, argues with an illegal logger during a patrol inside the Omo Forest Reserve Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Before becoming a ranger, Abiodun killed animals for a living, including endangered species. He is now part of a team working to protect Nigeria's Omo Forest Reserve, which is facing expanding deforestation from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching.

Sunday Abiodun, right, a former poacher turned forest ranger, shows trees recently planted at a site once used for cocoa cultivation, in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming, and poaching.  

Forest rangers, some of them former poachers, salute during a parade in the Omo Forest Reserve in Nigeria on Monday, July. 31, 2023. Omo Forest Reserve, a tropical rainforest in Nigeria's southwest, faces threats from excessive logging, uncontrolled farming and poaching. 

Credit: AP Photos/Sunday Alamba

"We want the government to support our conservation effort to preserve what remains of the forest," said another poacher-turned-ranger, Johnson Adejayin. "We see people we arrested and handed over to the government return to the forest to continue illegal logging and farming. They'd just move to another part."

One official from the government's forestry department said they were not authorized to comment and another did not reply to calls and messages seeking comment.

Rangers implore communities in the forest, particularly farmers, to avoid clearing land and plant new trees. However, they called the government's enforcement of environmental regulations critical to success.

"We are losing Omo Forest at a very alarming rate," said Agboola, the ecologist, who has been visiting for eight years. "When the forest is destroyed, biodiversity and ecosystem services are lost. When you cut down trees, you cut down a climate change mitigation solution, which fuels carbon accumulation in the atmosphere."

© 2023 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed without permission.


Explore furtherResearchers examine the complex interactions between timber, logging, and forest elephants

Alliance for the Wild Rockies Stops Trump From Logging and Burning Another 85,000 acres of Idaho National Forest 

by MIKE GARRITY AUGUST 17, 2020

Old-growth in Payette National Forest. Photo: Jeffrey St. Clair.

Two years ago, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the Lost Creek-Boulder Creek Project in Idaho violated the Payette National Forest Plan and the National Forest Management Act. Trump’s lawless Forest Service disregarded the Court’s decision and approved the same project again late last year.  The Alliance took the issue back to court and now Federal District Court Judge Winmill has stopped the project again, ruling that the Lost Creek Boulder Creek project continues to violate the Payette Forest Plan.

By ignoring a federal court’s mandate and moving forward with this project, the Forest Service attempts to insulate itself from a challenge on this crucial policy question:  Is logging and burning 85,000 acres and bulldozing 25 miles of new roads forest restoration? The Alliance and the best available science contend that “restoration logging” is an oxymoron.

In terms Trump might comprehend, 85,000 acres is almost six times the size of Manhattan Island.   Although the Payette Forest Plan limits the number of trees that could be cut to protect wildlife habitat, the agency thought it could get away with more logging by simply claiming logging isn’t logging – it’s “restoration but to do this they had to violate the Forest Plan.

What the Forest Plan requires

The Payette Forest Plan guides natural resource management activities on the Payette National Forest. It provides forest-wide, long-term management direction in the form of goals, objectives, standards, and guidelines designed to ensure that while there is a sustainable supply of timber, a sustainable population of native species in the forest must also be maintained.  Considering the project is in federally-designated Critical Habitat for Bull Trout, which have been on the Endangered Species List for more than 20 years, extensive road-building and logging would do anything but restore a sustainable population of these iconic native fish.

In 2018 the Ninth Circuit Court ruled that the Forest Service’s decision to approve the Lost Creek-Boulder Creek Project was “arbitrary and capricious,” “constituted a violation of the National Forest Management Act,” and ordered the project be vacated. Specifically, the Court held that the project was not only inconsistent with the Payette Forest Plan, but that the agency had improperly adopted a new definition of “old forest habitat” for the Lost Creek Project area.  The Court then directed the lower court to send the proposal back to the Forest Service to force the agency to comply with the law and Forest Plan.

While the national debt is skyrocketing Trump’s Forest Service decided it was more important to have taxpayers subsidize a $22 million project for the timber industry than to protect bull trout Critical Habit and the  Rapid River Inventoried Roadless Area as required by law.

Conclusion

The undeniable fact is that Federal Court decisions are binding on the Forest Service.  But the lawless Trump administration has a growing record of ignoring both the U.S. Constitution and Federal Court orders. Therefore we had little choice except to exercise our First Amendment rights under the Constitution and take Trump’s Forest Service back to court — especially considering the horrific precedent ignoring the Court sets for other illegal actions by federal agencies.

Dedication

Winning environmental lawsuits is always hard – but we are happy to dedicate this victory to one of Idaho’s environmental heroes, Ron Mitchell, who directed Idaho Sporting Congress and joined the Alliance and Native Ecosystems Council lawsuit to stop Trump’s Forest Service from decimating his beloved Payette National Forest.

Ron unfortunately died from a COVID-19 induced heart attack this summer.  But while we are primarily interested in protecting forest ecosystems and bull trout critical habitat, we won this case in Ron Mitchell’s memory because he believed it is vitally important to ensure that the federal government honor the separation of powers and the checks and balances ensconced in our Constitution – and right now that’s the only thing keeping Trump from totally destroying America’s national forests and native species.

We would also like to thank Claudia Newman of the Bricklin Newman law firm in Seattle for representing and winning this case for us.

More articles by:MIKE GARRITY

Mike Garrity is the executive director of the Alliance for the Wild Rockies.

The Enormous Flaw in Wildfire Data

by Sarah Hyden

 August 2, 2024
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Tanques Fire, i.e. Tanques Intentional Burn   Photo: U.S. Forest Service.

Both Congress and the U.S. Forest Service have told us that our forests and communities are experiencing a “wildfire crisis” – that an increasing amount of wildfire is burning on our landscapes, and fire severity is increasing. The primary “solution” they are currently planning and implementing, embodied in the Wildfire Crisis Strategy, is a substantial increase in logging, thinning and burning treatments in our forests, for which Congress has provided billions of dollars of funding, along with the mandate to get it done.

So that begs the question – to what extent are we actually in a wildfire crisis? Certainly the aggressive and environmentally damaging logging and over-burning that is being carried out in some forests, with much more to come, should be based on solid data and science.

The basic premise of the Wildfire Crisis Strategy is that wildfire is greatly increasing on our western landscapes. One would think that this should not be difficult to ascertain, as the Forest Service and other land management agencies maintain records and maps of wildfire perimeters. This data goes into national wildfire databases, such as MTBS (Monitoring Trends in Burn Severity). MTBS is “an interagency program to map the location, extent and associated burn severity of all large fires (including wildfire, wildland fire use and prescribed fire) in the United States across all ownerships from 1984 to present,” This program is largely run by the USGS and the US Forest Service, and datasets include state and federal fire history records.

However, Forest Service wildfire perimeter data is vastly compromised in that a large proportion of acres burned within the officially designated wildfire perimeters are actually ignited by the US Forest Service themselves, most often by aerial ignitions via drones and helicopters. In many cases, the majority of a fire that is called a “wildfire” on national forest lands is actually Forest Service intentional burning. This strategy for managing fire has increased to the point that numerous fires are substantially expanded by intentional burning.

Currently, the Tanques Fire in the Santa Fe National Forest, originally ignited by a lightning strike, is being expanded through aerial and ground firing operations under command of the Forest Service. According to a Forest Service news release, the fire was first reported on July 18, and by July 25, the fire had grown to only 13 acres.

Around that point the Forest Service made the decision to expand the fire up to 7,000 acres with firing operations, utilizing both aerial and hand ignitions. That means the Forest Service intended to expand it up to 538X its size. The fire may have continued to slowly expand naturally, but relatively high vegetation moisture from recent rains made it unlikely that the fire would spread much on its own. It’s hard to say exactly which part of the potential 7,000 acre “wildfire” will be due to intentional burning, and which will be “natural” wildfire, but it is clear the vast majority of the acres burned will be due to USFS ignitions. Nonetheless, the Forest Service is calling the Tanques Fire a wildfire.

Recently, the Forest Service and The Nature Conservancy (an organization closely aligned with the Forest Service), along with a university professor, authored the “Tamm review: A meta-analysis of thinning, prescribed fire, and wildfire effects on subsequent wildfire severity in conifer dominated forests of the Western US.” This review is a consideration of the efficacy of forest “thinning” and prescribed fire in moderating the incidence and severity of wildfire. It begins with citing a research article to support their contention that “In the western United States, area burned [by wildfire] has doubled in recent decades (Iglesias et al., 2022).”

Map of Tanques Fire 7,000 Acre Focal Area and Planning Area    U.S. Forest Service.

This research article, “U.S. fires became larger, more frequent, and more widespread in the 2000s,” is based on data from over 28,000 fires in the MTBS dataset. Since this dataset is derived largely from Forest Service wildfire data, it includes the large proportion of fire intentionally set by the Forest Service during wildfire management operations. The agency does not differentiate in their published wildfire data between fire ignited during wildfire management operations and fire that burned due to the original wildfire ignition. The study concludes that there have been more fires and larger fires in the west since 1999 – yet we have no way of knowing to what extent this is true, given that the Forest Service is igniting more and more fire under the umbrella of wildfire management, and calling it all wildfire.

The first publicized example of such wildfire expansion was the 2002 Biscuit Fire. Timothy Ingalsbee, PhD of Firefighters United for Safety, Ethics, and Ecology estimated that a large proportion of the Biscuit Fire was ignited by Forest Service firing operations. Inglasbee stated in a 2006 report largely focused on the Biscuit Fire: “…burnout operations can sometimes take place several miles away from the edge of a wildfire, or alternately, miles away from the fire containment line.” Wildfire expansions have increased since 2002, and wildfire starts, such as lightning strike ignitions, are often simply the “match that lit the fire” leading to numerous firing operation ignitions to implement intentional burns that they call wildfires.

The Tamm Review “found overwhelming evidence that mechanical thinning with prescribed burning, mechanical thinning with pile burning, and prescribed burning only, are effective at reducing subsequent wildfire severity.” Those conclusions are controversial and do not consider research from independent scientists. But a more fundamental issue with the Review is that the purpose and need for such aggressive forest treatments are at least partially predicated on flawed data that indicates wildfire has doubled on our landscapes in recent decades. It may be increasing given the warming and drying climate and the abundance of fuels, but who knows to what extent, since the wildfire data is so skewed by the inclusion of the Forest Service intentional burns. This data issue also affects considerations of trends in fire severity, and this should be investigated.

A significant proportion of wildfire research depends on wildfire perimeter data, including the Iglesias et al. research referenced as support for the premise of the Tamm Review. It is clear we have little knowledge of how much fire that was not ignited by the Forest Service has burned on our landscape in recent decades. It’s a major flaw in “wildfire” data. No forest management actions should be contemplated or initiated based on such data.

That Congress and the Forest Service are going forward with a strategy for addressing the “WIldfire Crisis,” without having determined with reasonable data and responsible science to what extent the crisis exists, is unacceptable  – especially considering that the remedy often involves severely damaging impacts to our forests and communities. There needs to be clear parameters developed for how to support appropriate amounts of fire on our landscapes, and any resulting plan should be analyzed with an environmental impact statement.

There is understandable concern about wildfires increasingly impacting wildland/urban interface communities, and this issue requires serious consideration and action. However, evidence clearly shows that burning of homes and communities by wildfire is not significantly impacted by logging, thinning and intentional burning treatments out in the forest, that only the 100 feet surrounding homes and other structures is relevant to structure ignitions. The best response to the home ignition problem is home hardening and treating the landscape immediately surrounding homes and other values. This takes a coordinated effort between governmental bodies, land management agencies and the public. Such coordination would more likely occur with increased transparency on the part of the Forest Service and affiliated scientists, which could build trust with the public. The accurate collection and categorization of wildfire data, which underlies research concerning wildfire, is a fundamental basis for transparency and trust – and good science.

Sarah Hyden has been working to protect the Santa Fe National Forest for well over a decade. She was a co-founder of the Santa Fe Forest Coalition and was the WildEarth Guardians’ Santa Fe National Forest Advocate. In 2019, she co-founded The Forest Advocate, a not-for-profit organization dedicated to protection of the Santa Fe National Forest and all western forests. The Forest Advocate maintains an active website that publishes forest advocacy news and resources — theforestadvocate.org.