Sikhs’ Sixth Guru Hargobind Ji’s Doctrine Of Miri-Piri: Champion Of Justice And Equality – OpEd

Sikh Guru Hargobind Ji. Credit: Unknown author, Wikipedia Commons

 November 1, 2024  

By Dr. Bawa Singh

Guru Hargobind Ji, the sixth Guru of the Sikhs, introduced a transformative vision to Sikhism that fortified its foundations in the face of tyranny and injustice.

Being the son of Guru Arjan Dev Ji, the first martyr in Sikh history, Guru Hargobind was profoundly influenced by a pressing imperative to safeguard Sikh community and uphold the fundamental principles of Sikhism, which include compassion, equality and justice. Guru Hargobind Ji established a robust Sikh identity through his principles, policies, and institutions, enabling it to endure oppression while championing dignity and human rights.

Sikhism: Foundational Tenets

Sikhism represents a significant spiritual and philosophical traditions which were originated in Punjab within the Indian subcontinent in the late 15th century. Sikhism, a faith that has arisen in comparatively modern times among the world’s principal religions, is remarkable for having attracted a global following of around 25 to 30 million adherents. The Sikh faith originates from the profound teachings of Guru Nanak (1469–1539), the first of the ten Sikh gurus, whose insights were further developed by his revered successors. Guru Gobind Singh, the tenth guru, declared the  Guru Granth Sahib to be the eternal guru, thus bringing an end to the succession of human gurus and establishing the scripture as the supreme religious text for the Sikh community. 

Sikhism emerged within a milieu characterized by significant religious persecution, particularly during the Mughal era, a period that saw the martyrdom of like Guru Arjan and Guru Tegh Bahadur. The events previously mentioned acted as a significant impetus for the formation of the Khalsa by Guru Gobind Singh in 1699, a revered congregation of “saint-soldiers” dedicated to the honorable mission of protecting religious liberty and the integrity of faith. The deep and complex tenets and rituals of Sikhism act as a wellspring of motivation and collective harmony for its followers. 

The Sikh traditions posit that God is formless yet accessible; defined by fearlessness, free from adversaries, self-originating, and transcending the limitations of birth and time. The esteemed scripture, referred to as Sri Guru Granth Sahib, articulates the intricate essence of the Divine with remarkable profundity. This fundamental conviction in a singular God inherently leads to the essential principle of equality among all people, surpassing differences in race, religion, gender, and social status. Proponents of Sikhism assert that every person holds equal value in the eyes of the God; this sacred doctrine champions the equality of genders, the affluent and the impoverished, and the rights of individuals irrespective of racial distinctions. Thus, it is a fundamental principle of Sikhism that individuals from various faith traditions can achieve a connection with the Divine, as long as they sincerely follow the true path of their own beliefs. 

The essential principles of Sikhism, as expressed in the revered Guru Granth Sahib, include a deep reverence for the One Creator (Ik Onkar), the intrinsic unity and equality of all people, the dedication to selfless service (Sevā), the steadfast quest for justice (Sarbat Da Bhala—the well-being of all), and a strong adherence to integrity in personal behavior. Sikhism upholds the principle of equality among all individuals, irrespective of their background or social standing. This message was imparted by all Gurus, who championed a society devoid of caste distinctions, where no individual held superiority over another and where the rights of others were to be respected and safeguarded. The Sikh Gurus championed the rights of every individual, irrespective of their religion, caste, gender, or race. They upheld the principle of liberty for everyone to exist unencumbered by excessive interference or limitations. 

The relationship between the Sikhs and the Mughals experienced a significant transformation in 1606, marked by the martyrdom of Guru Arjan Dev Ji. The execution of the fifth Guru Arjan Dev, by Emperor Jahangir during his reign (1605-1627), signified the onset of a period characterized by the persecution of Sikhs, whose beliefs posed a challenge to the prevailing religious bigotry  of the Empire. Guru Hargobind Ji was deeply influenced by the tragic martyrdom of Guru Arjun Dev Ji, which motivated him to adopt a proactive stance that transformed the community’s view on oppression. A notable shift from the nonviolent approaches of his predecessors, Guru Hargobind emphasized the importance of armed resistance upon recognizing that mere moral courage could not adequately protect the community. This adaptable approach not only safeguarded Sikhism but also positioned the community as a formidable defender of human rights and justice. This tradition was further reinforced by Guru Teg Bahadur, who gave his life to protect the Kashmiri Pundits from the persecution imposed by the Mughal regime. 

The Sikh Gurus bequeathed a profound legacy to the followers, urging them to maintain elevated moral standards and to embrace personal sacrifice in the defense and preservation of these noble principles. Guru Arjan Dev, Guru Tegh Bahadur, and Guru Gobind Singh exemplify this principle remarkably who sacrificed for the larger interest of the followers. These sacrifices/martyrdoms exemplified the Sikhs’ capacity to confront oppression and tyranny with steadfast and resolute determination.

Guru Hargobind Sahib: Early Life 

Guru Hargobind, born in Gurū kī Waḍālī on June 19, 1595, was the sole offspring of Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru of the Sikhs. Guru Hargobind was instructed in religious teachings by Bhai Gurdas and honed his skills in military swordsmanship and archery under the guidance of Baba Budda. During his formative years, he was deeply immersed in the hymns resonating within the  Harmandir Sahib complex in Amritsar. On 25 May 1606, the fifth Guru, Arjan, designated his son Hargobind as his successor, instructing him to establish a military tradition aimed at safeguarding the Sikh religion and its adherents. On the 30  May, 1606, he faced arrest, endured torture, and ultimately met his demise at the hands of Mughal Emperor Jahangir. The succession ceremony of Guru Hargobind took place on 24 June, 1606, during which he donned two swords symbolizing his spiritual and temporal authority. 

Relations Between Sikh Gurus and Mughals 

The spiritual and socio-political impact of the Sikh religion in Mughal India transformed the dynamics between the Sikh Gurus and the Mughals, shifting it from a state of coexistence to one of conflicted ones. Guru Nanak, the first Sikh Guru, advocated for peace and spirituality while maintaining a stance of non-opposition towards Mughal governance. He stood against injustice, as evidenced by his reaction to Babur’s invasions. Given that Sikhism emerged as a devotional movement, Emperor Akbar exhibited a degree of tolerance towards its followers. The early Sikh Gurus successfully nurtured their community and identity within the framework of Akbar’s pluralistic approach. The circumstances underwent a significant transformation during the reign of Jahangir. Guru Arjan, the fifth Guru, ardently supported Prince Khusrau and steadfastly declined to alter Sikh scripture, a stance that ultimately culminated in his martyrdom. Following his martyrdom, Sikhism adopted a defensive stance in response to Mughal oppression. Guru Hargobind, the successor of Guru Arjan, adeptly intertwined spiritual guidance with a stance of political defiance. He urged Sikhs to take up arms for self-defense, confronting Mughal forces and solidifying the Sikh community as both a religious and political entity. 

Guru Tegh Bahadur and his contemporaries opposed Mughal authority, particularly in response to Aurangzeb’s coercive conversion efforts. The execution of Guru Tegh Bahadur stands as a poignant testament to the Sikh commitment to religious freedom and the resistance against tyranny, particularly in his defense of Hindu rights. His martyrdom fortified the Sikhs’ determination to withstand persecution and uphold their autonomy. 

The 10th Guru Gobind Singh established the Khalsa, a brotherhood of warriors committed to upholding justice and faith, thereby militarizing the Sikhs. The Khalsa valiantly resisted Mughal oppression through direct confrontations. The rebellion led by Banda Singh Bahadur established Sikh governance in Punjab, thereby laying the foundation for the Sikh Empire. The resilience of Guru Gobind Singh served as a profound source of inspiration. The interactions between Sikhs and Mughals significantly influenced Sikhism, establishing it as a movement characterized by justice, bravery, and self-determination, while simultaneously crafting the Sikh identity through spiritual practices and a steadfast opposition to injustice. 

Guru Hargobind Sahib’s -Doctrine of Miri-Piri

Guru Hargobind Ji’s introduction of the concept of two swords (Miri-Piri) concept established the foundation of his leadership, providing a dual mandate that balanced temporal power with spiritual responsibilities. By wearing two swords, one representing Miri (temporal power) and the other Piri (spiritual authority), Guru Hargobind sent a clear message to both Sikhs and the ruling Mughals: spiritual principles alone were insufficient in a world that ignored moral persuasion and allowed oppression to thrive. Instead, a full and just life necessitated both spiritual discipline and a willingness to defend oneself and others. Guru Hargobind Ji instilled in Sikhs a sense of moral duty through Miri-Piri, teaching them that self-defense and protecting others were sacred responsibilities rather than acts of aggression. This vision inspired Sikhs to become Saint-Soldiers, people who combined spiritual knowledge and martial discipline. This dual role strengthened the Sikh community’s resistance to tyranny and provided an alternative social model in which spiritual progress coincided with active participation in worldly affairs.

In 1606, Guru Hargobind Ji founded the  Akal Takht, or the “Throne of the Timeless One,” opposite the  Harmandir Sahib in Amritsar. The Akal Takht emerged as the inaugural seat of sovereign, independent temporal authority in Sikhism, enabling the Guru to resolve temporal matters and issue hukamnamas (directives) for the Sikh followers. The Akal Takht, by creating an institution free from Mughal influence, emerged as a center for Sikh autonomy, representing a distinctive fusion of spiritual leadership and secular authority.

The Akal Takht exemplified Guru Hargobind Ji’s profound dedication to justice, liberty, and equality. He convened councils, rendered legal judgments, and guided Sikhs in social and military affairs. By aligning Sikh leadership with principles of justice and moral authority, the Akal Takht emerged as a symbol of resistance against oppression. The enduring significance of the Akal Takht in Sikhism highlights the persistent legacy of Guru Hargobind’s principles, positioning it as a bastion for the advocacy of the oppressed and marginalized.

The legacy of Guru Hargobind Ji as a champion of human rights and dignity is evident in his unwavering resistance to Mughal despotism. Throughout his tenure as Guru, he faced numerous Mughal assaults and invasions. Instead of yielding to oppression, Guru Hargobind organized and trained a military contingent, enabling the community to protect itself. This decision established a precedent for resistance against oppression, positioning the Sikh community as a potent symbol of resilience for other marginalized groups under Mughal rule.

Guru Hargobind conveyed that the struggle for justice and dignity is universal. He directed his adherents to perceive self-defense as an obligation rather than an individual entitlement. By fostering an ethos of seva (selfless service) within the Sikh community, he guaranteed that armed defense was utilized solely to protect the vulnerable and uphold justice, rather than for personal advantage. His actions reverberated among other marginalized groups throughout India, galvanizing a unified opposition to the Mughal Empire’s religious intolerance and political despotism. 

Guru Hargobind Ji’s notable act of liberation involved the release of 52 Hindu kings from Gwalior Fort, an event now observed as Bandi Chhor Divas. Guru Hargobind’s spiritual influence was further intensified when he conditioned his release with the liberation of 52 kings who had been unjustly imprisoned by Emperor Jahangir with him. Bandi Chhor Divas is a lasting testament to Guru Hargobind’s commitment for the protection of justice and human rights. His actions went beyond personal liberation, emphasizing his dedication to liberation of others from the shackles of oppression. The Sikh tenets of universal brotherhood and the Guru’s doctrine of equality and justice were exemplified by this demonstration of moral fortitude and compassion. Bandi Chhor Divas is now observed not only as a Sikh festival, but also as a symbol of the triumph of truth over oppression, justice, and resistance. 

Vision of an Egalitarian Society

In addition to his political and military endeavors, Guru Hargobind Ji pursued the traditions of establishment of langars community kitchens), where individuals from all castes and social standings shared meals. His focus on selfless service underscored the significance of altruism in enhancing societal welfare and guaranteeing equitable resource distribution. The egalitarian principles espoused by Guru Hargobind Ji stood in sharp opposition to the social hierarchies upheld by the ruling elite. Through the cultivation of a society that granted respect and dignity to every individual, he confronted the dominant conventions of his era and established the groundwork for a community rooted in equality, compassion, and solidarity. This embrace of diversity is fundamental to Sikh identity, emphasizing the belief that spirituality is deeply connected to social responsibility and the protection of human rights.

The life and leadership of Guru Hargobind Ji catalyzed a transformation within Sikhism, evolving it from a spiritual community into a vigorous advocate for justice. The introduction of Miri-Piri transformed the Sikh identity, inspiring Sikhs to seek both spiritual enlightenment and active participation in worldly matters. This dual function fortified the community’s determination, empowering it to withstand oppression and safeguard the marginalized. The Guru’s focus on self-defense as a revered obligation, coupled with his founding of the  Akal Takht, equipped Sikhs with the necessary institutional and ideological structures to uphold their resistance against oppression. The policies he implemented had a significant impact on later Sikh Gurus, especially Guru Gobind Singh Ji, who codified the Sikh martial tradition through the creation of the Khalsa. The principles imparted by Guru Hargobind to his disciples remain relevant, inspiring Sikhs across the globe to exemplify compassion, bravery, and fortitude.

Conclusion

The profound leadership of Guru Hargobind Ji remains a guiding force in the Sikh tradition, fostering a deep dedication to justice, equality, and the protection of human rights. Through the promotion of a harmonious existence characterized by Miri-Piri, the defense of human dignity, and the advancement of egalitarian principles, he established the groundwork for a robust Sikh community ready to face oppression in its various manifestations. His teachings serve as a reminder that spirituality is an active endeavor, intricately linked to the principles of justice and compassion in our engagement with the world. The legacy of Guru Hargobind as a champion of freedom, advocate for social change, and protector of rights surpasses his era, providing an enduring framework for addressing injustice and promoting a society that embraces inclusivity. In a society that persistently confronts challenges of injustice and disparity, the life and teachings of Guru Hargobind serve as a profound reminder of the lasting significance of bravery, empathy, and an unwavering dedication to the dignity of all individuals.

Dr. Bawa Singh

Prof. (Dr.) Bawa Singh has been teaching at the Department of South and Central Asian Studies, School of International Studies, Central University of Punjab. He holds a Ph.D. in Political Science from Panjab University. He has extensive teaching and research experiences and has held various academic roles. Prof. Singh has held key administrative positions, including Head of the Department and Dean of the School of International Studies. His research interests include the geopolitics of South and Central Asia, Indian foreign policy, regional cooperation, and global health diplomacy. He has led significant research projects, including an ICSSR-funded study on SAARC's geostrategic and geo-economic role. Singh has published 61 papers, 15 book chapters, 100 commentaries, and two books published by Routledge and Springer Nature.

“The Story of the Sikhs: 1469-1708” by Sarbpreet Singh
 

The Story of The Sikhs: 1469-1708, Sarbpreet Singh (India Viking, July 2021)

Sikhs, at least Sikh men, are conspicuous among Indians by their ever-present turbans and their less noticeable but similarly ever-present daggers. Mistaken for, and sometimes attached as Aghani Muslims after 9/11, they can also be misunderstood in their native India, mocked as dim-wits in the Sardarji jokes and, followingt the assassination of Indira Gandhi by her Sikh bodyguard, targeted by state-sponsored propaganda and violence. Sikhism itself is, to non-adherents, obscure relative to Hinduism or Buddhism.

As a result, the question whether religion is a birthright or a burden has serious social and political dimensions for the Sikh community. That it can be a means to the exploration of one’s spiritual identity as shaped by one’s ancestors finds beautiful expression in Sarbpreet Singh’s book The Story of the Sikhs: 1469-1708, based on his podcast of same name. He has produced an enchanting narrative about the origins of Sikhism in medieval India and its origins as intertwined with the presence of the Mughals, its institutions, and its message of fearlessness in the face of tyranny, intertwined with Singh’s own origins as well:

I distinctly remember my twenty-year-old self being beset by the jejune mockery of Sikhs — rampant in popular Indian culture — on the one hand, and the relentless anti-Sikh propaganda of Indian officialdom in the age of 1984 on the other! Small wonder then, that when I arrived in America in my early twenties, my connection to my faith and identity was, to put it mildly, tenuous…While this book has not been written for a specific readership, I would like to express a hope. Decades ago, as a young man seeking both my roots and a sense of identity, I started a journey that was to enrich my life immensely. I am hoping that this work will serve as an entry point for other seekers who might be in the early stages of their own journeys.

Singh movingly narrates “the story of the sikhs” as a storyteller rather than as a historian, albeit with generous references to archives from the medieval period including travellers’ accounts, the Janam Sakhis or the accounts of the lives of the saints, sacred and secular poetry and debates among scholars studying Sikh history. One major takeaway that transcends an interest in Sikhism per se is the presentation of Mughal history from the point of view of the ten Gurus of Sikhism; the Mughals and the Gurus were almost exact contemporaries. At a time when the Mughals are generally invoked in the context of animosity between the Hindus and the Muslims in South Asia, Singh provides a new lens, both beautiful and brutal, for this history.

The book opens with Guru Nanak, the first Guru and the founder of Sikhism, challenging the massacre engendered by Babur, the first Mughal Emperor, and his army at Sayyidpur, now known as Eminabad in what is today Pakistan:

Kings are hungry lions
Their servants rabid dogs
Foes of soothing restful sleep
The mindless servile cogs

The lackeys of the evil king,
Waving talone and claw
The prey on common gentlefolk;
Their tender flesh they gnaw

Babur was superstitious and didn’t want to be cursed by holy men. When he met Nanak, he received the Guru’s blessings and the prophecy that if his clan “shrinks from justice”, a blight would come upon its rule. Some Gurus paid with their lives as the prophecy of the blight began to come true.

Singh’s translations are evocative as are his narrations of different episodes from the period. Here is one that describes Mughal Emperor Akbar’s visit to the third Guru, Amar Das. Akbar walks barefoot towards the Guru:

When the Sikhs understood his intention, they hastened to lay down sheets of fine silk and velvet on the ground to ensure that the Emperor’s show of humility would be as comfortable as possible. Before the Emperor walked one of his attendants, carrying an ornate golden staff with which he periodically struck the ground. The Emperor looked at the silken sheets spread before him and then bent to move them aside with his own hands. He then started to walk barefoot on the rough path. The Emperor presented a resplendent sight in his regal attire… The mighty Emperor Akbar, before whom the entire world bowed, humbly saluted the Guru. Then, gathering his limbs about him, he sat on the ground before him. ‘Did you eat in the Langar?’ the Guru asked the Emperor. ‘Oh, what shall I eat?’ Akbar asked. ‘Today in the Langar we have unsalted porridge,’ said Guru Amar Das. ‘Then that is what I shall eat, too.’

With Akbar’s son Jahangir and great grandson Aurangzeb, the relationship between the House of Akbar and the House of Akbar, as Singh puts it, took a violent turn. With Jahangir’s execution of the Fifth Guru, Arjan Dev and Aurangzeb having the ninth Guru, Tegh Bahadur beheaded, the story in Singh’s narration acquires epic overtones. The two Mughals saw the following and the power the Gurus came to acquire as a threat to their existence. Also, they couldn’t grasp the new religion and its ethos—one can trace influences from both Hinduism and Islam—which was inclusive, challenged caste hierarchy, encouraged communal dining, fed people three times a day from a community kitchen supported by the funds from the community and run thanks to volunteer efforts, and encouraged honest labor, and sharing the fruits of that labor.

To be clear, there is a lot more than the presence of the Mughals to Singh’s story. The compilation of the holy book, the Guru Granth Sahib, and the acquisition of swords as weapons of self defence and as a means of defending the weak while refusing to bow down to tyranny find equal space in Singh’s narrative with their own interesting legends and debates.

True to the objective of writing a story that introduces seekers to the origins of their religion, Singh is at his best when discussing the metaphysics of the miracles performed by the Gurus. One story involves Nanak’s visit to Mecca—he sat with his feet towards the Kaaba. The indignant custodian of the mosque kicked Nanak’s feet away from the direction of the Kaaba. Those witnessing the scene gasped for they found the Kaaba had moved to the direction where Nanak’s feet now pointed! Nanak came to be revered by the Muslims of Mecca thanks to this “miracle” and the subsequent interactions with the Imam of Mecca. He came to be known as Nanak Pir Wali Hind, or the holy man from India. Indeed, as Sarbpreet Singh points out, a mosque dedicated to him was built about half a mile away from the Grand Mosque. Nanak left his staff and sandals behind when asked for a keepsake by the Muslims.

Early in the book, Singh talks about his rationale for including these apocryphal stories in his mega-story:

Some are wondrous tales of miracles that Nanak wrought, others are thinly disguised appropriations from Hindu mythology, and some based on historical fact documents and propagated through the generations. Nanak was, above all else, a very rational and practical man, who spent his whole life debunking ritualism and pouring scorn on superstition. It is ironic that the legacy of a man who mercilessly exposed charlatans claiming miraculous spiritual powers, now swirls with fantastic tales! … I have struggled with my approach to these stories. I have come to accept them as parables, because without doubt many of them illuminate important truths and principles.

Singh’s story about the medieval times is made more poignant by the ramifications it has for the present. The Rababis, the descendants of the earliest professional musicians who would sing of the Almighty for and with the Gurus, were Muslims. With the 1947 Partition, they left for Pakistan where their art died. Singh also refers to the act of kindness shown by Nawab Sher Muhammad Khan in attempting to stop Aurangzeb from killing Guru Gobind Singh’s sons. While Khan was ignored at that time, his:

… moment of honour and compassion was to pay great dividends, generations later. There is a strong belief among the residents of Malerkotla that the haa da naara or cry of protest of Nawab Sher Muhammad Khan in 1704, and Guru Gobind Singh’s subsequent blessing, was directly responsible for the peace that prevailed in teh town in 1947. It seems almost miraculous that while the rest of the Punjab was racked by the fury and bloodletting that accompanied the partition of India and Pakistan, the Muslim residents of Malerkotla emerged unscatheed, despite being hemmed in by a hostile Sikh and Hindu population.

Despite the author’s claim that it’s a story or a personal approach rather than a proper history, The Story of the Sikhs is a well-researched document and an inspiration to Sikhs as well as believers of other religions to find their own spiritual anchorings by examining their communities’ pasts and their relationships with the present times.

Soni Wadhwa lives in Mumbai.

Soni Wadhwa 2 October 2021 Non-Fiction

ESSAY: HOW A DREAM WAS TRANSFORMED

Masood Lohar 

Published May 18, 2025 

DAWN

A 19th century painting depicting Guru Nanak wearing a chola (robe) with Perso-Arabic inscriptions | Wikimedia Commons

Long before sectarian lines hardened across the Indian Subcontinent, a mystic named Guru Nanak emerged from the village of Talwandi (now Nankana Sahib, Pakistan) with a message that transcended religious boundaries.

Born on 15 April 1469 into a Hindu family, Guru Nanak was deeply influenced not only by Bhakti [devotional worship] traditions, but also by the Islamic monotheism that surrounded him. His spiritual vision gave birth to Sikhism — not as a break from Hinduism or Islam, but as a bridge that hoped to connect them.

Guru Nanak’s teachings — delivered through poetry, music and profound silence — echoed equally in temples, mosques and khanqahs [Sufi lodges]. At the heart of his message is the concept of Ik Onkar (There is but one God), closely resonating with the Islamic principle of Tauhid (oneness of God).

Guru Nanak’s respect for Islamic figures was neither rhetorical nor superficial. There are verses extolling the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH), with his reverence extending beyond words. Tradition holds that Guru Nanak undertook pilgrimages to Makkah, Madina, Baghdad and Najaf, engaging with Muslim scholars and Sufi mystics. The Chola Sahib, a robe still preserved by his family, bears embroidered Quranic verses and names of Allah, reflecting his deep engagement with Islamic spirituality.

Born from Sufi and Bhakti traditions, Sikhism was India’s great interfaith experiment… until persecution and betrayals turned it into a warrior tradition

This interfaith spirit was further embodied when Guru Arjan Dev, the fifth Sikh Guru, invited Sufi saint Hazrat Mian Mir to lay the foundation of the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in 1588 — a powerful symbol of communal harmony.

However, this harmony did not survive the shifting political landscape of the Mughal Empire.

From Akbar’s Tolerance to Mughal Orthodoxy

Under Mughal Emperor Akbar (reigned 1556–1605), a brief window of religious openness flourished. Akbar encouraged interfaith dialogue, invited scholars of diverse backgrounds to his court, and even included Sikh representatives. His establishment of the Ibadat Khana [house of worship] at Fatehpur Sikri brought together thinkers from Hindu, Jain, Zoroastrian, Christian and Muslim traditions. Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-Kul [universal peace] reflected a syncretic spirit rarely seen among contemporary rulers.

However, this pluralistic ethos began to unravel under his successors, particularly Jahangir and Aurangzeb, who were influenced by a rising tide of orthodox Sunni revivalism. A key intellectual figure behind this shift was Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624), also known as Mujaddid Alf-i-Thani — the “Reformer of the Second Millennium” in Islamic tradition. Sirhindi’s influence marked a major turning point in the ideological landscape of the Mughal Empire.

Sirhindi not only denounced the syncretic and inclusive religious experiments of Akbar’s court, but also challenged the metaphysical foundations of dominant Sufi thought. He took aim at the philosophy of Wahdat-ul-Wujood [unity of being], famously articulated by Andalusian Sufi Ibn al-Arabi (1165–1240), which posits that all existence is a manifestation of God’s being. In its more liberal interpretations, this view had allowed space for interreligious respect and mystical inclusivity.

In response, Sirhindi proposed Wahdat-ul-Shuhood [unity of witnessing] — a stricter formulation which emphasised the transcendence of God and denied that created beings shared in Divine essence. While still rooted in Sufi tradition, this new doctrine reasserted theological boundaries, placing Islam in firm doctrinal opposition to other faiths and to the syncretic spirituality promoted during Akbar’s reign.

Sirhindi claimed that he had “given a new life to the deen [religion]”, casting himself as the guardian of Islam against the dilution of its core principles. His letters, known as the Maktubat, circulated widely among the Mughal elite and influenced state policy, encouraging a return to Shariah-based governance and a suppression of heterodox practices. This orthodox turn significantly shaped the attitudes of Mughal rulers, laying the groundwork for the persecution of non-Sunni and non-Muslim communities, including Sikhs.

The First Crack

In 1606, Guru Arjan Dev, who had compiled the Adi Granth (the precursor to the Guru Granth Sahib, Sikhism’s holy book) incorporating hymns from Hindu, Sikh and Muslim mystics such as Baba Farid, was arrested under Mughal Emperor Jahangir’s orders.

Viewed with suspicion for his inclusive approach and growing influence, he was subjected to horrific torture at Lahore Fort: made to sit on a burning plate while hot sand was poured over him. According to Sikh traditions, Guru Arjan Dev remained immersed in meditation despite the agony. Allowed to bathe in the Ravi River, he disappeared into its waters — thus becoming the first Sikh martyr.

This event marked a turning point. His son, Guru Hargobind, responded by adopting military symbols, donning two swords representing miri [temporal authority] and piri [spiritual authority], initiating Sikhism’s martial transformation.

Under Aurangzeb, the rift between Sikhs and the Mughal state widened irreparably. In 1675, Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru, was approached by Kashmiri Pandits seeking jizya [religious tax] concessions, who asked him to intercede on their behalf with the emperor, according to Sikh traditions.

At the Mughal court in Delhi, Guru Tegh Bahadur was mocked and asked to perform a miracle to prove his spiritual authority or convert to Islam. When he refused, he was executed by beheading in Delhi.

The Birth of the Khalsa

The oppression reached its peak during the time of Guru Gobind Singh (1666–1708). In 1699, he institutionalised the Khalsa, a brotherhood of warrior-saints devoted to defending righteousness and justice. This transformation was a direct response to Mughal aggression.

Aurangzeb’s betrayal of promises led to a tragic siege at Anandpur Sahib. After agreeing to grant safe passage, the Mughals attacked Guru Gobind Singh’s entourage. His mother and two young sons were captured and killed, and the Guru himself was forced into battles and exile.

In a letter known as the Zafarnama, Guru Gobind Singh condemned Aurangzeb’s duplicity in Persian verse. A translation by Indian diplomat and author Navtej Sarna reads:

“I have no faith in your oath, even if sworn by God—
For He is One, and your words are hollow.
I place no trust in your courts or ministers—
All are liars, and your promises false.”

The execution of his father, the betrayal of sacred promises, and the murder of his family pushed Guru Gobind Singh to shift Sikhism firmly into a martial path of self-defence and resistance.

A Legacy of Coexistence and Conflict

The arc from Guru Nanak’s inclusive message to Guru Gobind Singh’s martial reformation reflects not a departure from his founding ideals, but a response to historical injustice and persecution. From reverence for Islamic monotheism to resistance against religious coercion, Sikhism’s journey through the Mughal period is a testament to both spiritual dialogue and the cost of broken promises.

Even in confrontation, Guru Nanak’s original vision — of a world where truth, humility and justice transcend religious boundaries — remains at the heart of Sikh philosophy. Yet, in a complex twist of history, the one who was born a Hindu and led both Hindus and others toward the worship of one God — Tauheed, as understood in Islam — ultimately saw his legacy diverted by later generations.

What seemingly began as a call to dissolve religious identities in Divine oneness gradually hardened into a separate identity. In seeking to defend the faith, many strayed from the universal spirit that Baba Nanak had so boldly embodied, inadvertently obscuring the very essence he once awakened.

The writer is an activist and founder of the Clifton Urban Forest, Karachi. X: @masoodlohar

Published in Dawn, EOS, May 18th, 2025