New insights into ancient Gondwana fossil from Antarctica

Flinders University

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Life reconstruction of Devonian tetrapodomorph fish Koharalepis jarviki. Original painting by Honours student and palaeoartist Thomas Turner.

 

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Credit: Flinders University

Flinders University researchers have taken a revealing look inside the head of one of the first animals to crawl from the water to live on land more than 380 million years ago.  

Using high-tech neutron imaging, they scanned the skull and braincase of the only known specimen of Koharalepis jarviki, a large fossil fish found in freshwater rivers in the vast Lashly Mountains region of Antarctica which lived during the Devonian Period or 'Age of Fishes'.

“This precious fossil belongs to a group called the Canowindridae which highlights the ancient links between Australia and Antarctica,” says Flinders University Research Fellow Dr Alice Clement, coauthor of a new article in Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 

“It is important to study such specimens from the Devonian Age of Fishes when the waters teemed with predatory lobe-finned fish like this that are closely related to land animals (tetrapods),” says Dr Clement, from the College of Science and Engineering.

Koharalepis is a member of the Canowindrid family, a group that lived in East Gondwana and have fossils found today across Australia and Antarctica. It is an ancestor of the first land animals or four-limbed vertebrate tetrapods.

Lead author of the new study, Corinne Mensforth, a PhD candidate from the Flinders Palaeontology Lab, says: “We chose to focus on Koharalepis as it is the only fossil in the entire family to preserve the internal bones of the skull, which gives us valuable insights into its braincase and neuroanatomy.”

“We found evidence that the brain of Koharalepis was similar to those of the fishes that straddle the vertebrate water-to-land transition.

“We also found adaptations to life near the surface of the water, including openings in the top of the skull for additional air intake and an organ within the brain that detects light and circadian rhythms.

“Koharalepis which grew to about 1 metre was an ambush predator that preyed on other smaller animals in their environment, and with relatively small eyes it must have relied heavily on its other senses to capture its prey.”

Another coauthor of the latest study, Flinders University Emeritus Professor John Long, was part of earlier research describing Koharalepis in 1992.  

Professor Long says the new data generated by modern non-destructive imaging techniques describe the internal skeleton of the skull, shoulder girdle and part of the backbone.

“This has enabled us to understand some of the behaviour, adaptations and relationships of Koharalepis to its environment and to the other tetrapod-like fishes – and how fish first left the water to live on land approximately 385 million years ago,” he says.

The article, New data on the sarcopterygian Koharalepis jarviki (Tetrapodomorpha; Canowindridae) from the Late Devonian of Antarctica, revealed via synchrotron and neutron tomography (2026) by Corinne L Mensforth, John A Long, Joseph J Bevitt (Australian Centre for Neutron Scattering, ANSTO) and Alice M Clement has been in Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2026.1765271.

Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the Australian Research Council (DP 200103398), with thanks to  Dr Matthew McCurry (Australian Museum) for specimen loan and Anton Maksimenko for assistance with synchrotron scanning (Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation).

Photos, illustrations and captions:https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1MwSdOSS0DYhpQuseE-S6MRlHC6yphEOq

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Journal

Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution

DOI

10.3389/fevo.2026.1765271 

Method of Research

Imaging analysis

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

New data on the sarcopterygian Koharalepis jarviki (Tetrapodomorpha; Canowindridae) from the Late Devonian of Antarctica, revealed via synchrotron and neutron tomography

Article Publication Date

26-Apr-2026

 

3D model of the fossil skull of Koharalepis jarviki. The model is pictured from above, showing a roughly triangular-shaped skull with some vertebrae seen below.

 

Image from above of Koharalepis jarviki head showing outline of skull bones. Illustrates a life reconstruction of the fossil fish.

Credit

C Mensforth (Flinders University)

Professor John Long was part of the 1991 expedition to Antarctica when one of the first specimens was found. An earlier field trip in 1971 also found remains of the species.

Credit

J Long (Flinders University)

Dr Alice Clement and PhD Candidate Corinne Mensforth in the Flinders Palaeontology Laboratory examining a small fossil fish.

Credit

Flinders University

Giant ichthyosaur with injuries discovered in Northern Bavaria, Germany

Staatliche Naturwissenschaftliche Sammlungen Bayerns

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Reconstruction of the described Temnodontosaurus cf. trigonodon.

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Credit: Paleoartist: Joschua Knüppe

The Mistelgau clay pit near Bayreuth, Germany, is known for its well-preserved marine fossils, particularly its abundance of ichthyosaurs. These large marine reptiles resembled modern dolphins in appearance and lived worldwide during the Early Jurassic period, around 180 million years ago. The ichthyosaur from Mistelgau now under investigation belongs to the genus Temnodontosaurus. Several parts of its skeleton have been preserved: fragments of the skull and lower jaw, the shoulder girdle, forefins, the spine, and over 100 teeth. The exceptional three-dimensional preservation allows researchers detailed insights into anatomical structures that have rarely been documented before, such as those in the palate, orbital region, and the fins. Comparisons reveal clear similarities, but also differences to Temnodontosaurus trigonodon—animals of this species are among the largest known ichthyosaurs. Based on its skull length of 1.5 meters, the animal is estimated to have been about 6.6 meters long.

“Our Temnodontosaurus fossil is one of the youngest finds of this ichthyosaur genus to date. Until now, representatives of this genus have mainly been known from older geological layers, such as the Posidonia Shale of Holzmaden. The discovery from Mistelgau now shows that these large marine reptiles survived longer in the Southwest German Basin than previously documented,” says SNSB paleontologist Dr. Ulrike Albert, author of the study. Albert conducts research at the Urwelt-Museum Oberfranken in Bayreuth, one of ten museums belonging to the Bavarian State Collections of Natural History. The team at the Urwelt-Museum Oberfranken has been conducting regular excavations in Mistelgau since 1998. The fossils recovered there are prepared at the Urwelt-Museum and subsequently subjected to scientific analysis.

Particularly striking are several modifications to the skeleton, presumably caused by injuries, including those affecting the reptile’s shoulder and jaw joints. “The injuries likely significantly limited the animal’s ability to catch prey,” explains Stefan Eggmaier, preparator at the Urwelt-Museum and also an author of the study. “The fact that it nevertheless survived is evidenced, among other things, by its heavily worn teeth and gastroliths, which we were able to identify in the abdominal region.” Gastroliths are extremely rare in ichthyosaurs such as Temnodontosaurus. Eggmaier speculates that the animal may have had to change its diet in order to survive its injuries.

The current findings are part of ongoing research into the ecology of the Jurassic Sea in Upper Franconia. Analyses of teeth and bone structures are planned, with the aim of better understanding the ecology of these animals and their habitat.

Fossil Temnodontosaurus cf. trigonodon (UMO BT 011237.00), viewed from below, showing the skull and body plate, including all isolated bones and teeth recovered from the surrounding sediment.

Credit

Urwelt-Museum Oberfranken

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Ulrike Albert and Stefan Eggmaier from the Urwelt-Museum Oberfranken at the excavation site in Mistelgau

Credit

Mathias Orgeldinger

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Journal

Zitteliana

DOI

10.3897/zitteliana.100.172724 

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

A partial skeleton of Temnodontosaurus cf. trigonodon in three-dimensional bone preservation from the upper Toarcian of Mistelgau, Germany

Article Publication Date

23-Apr-2026

Community essential for native bats

Murdoch University

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Gould's wattled bat (Chalinolobus gouldi)

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Credit: Photo: David Cuddihy

Community help is no longer just nice to have in the world of bat conservation, it is essential to large-scale bat monitoring and the protection of threatened and understudied species, according to new research.

 

Research from Murdoch University’s School of Environmental and Conservation Sciences has revealed that collaboration between universities, not for profits, government agencies and community members is the key to ensuring data collection is accurate, and that it flows into policy and practice.

 

“Citizen science is playing an increasingly important role in bat research in Australia, helping us better understand our bats and support conservation efforts,” said lead researcher and ecologist Kelly Sheldrick.

 

“Citizen contributions are essential for advancing our understanding of bat ecology globally, particularly where large geographic areas and long-term data collection are involved.

 

“Large-scale data collection on bat distribution and seasonal activity, for example, can guide habitat protection efforts, inform adaptive land-use planning and improve early detection of population declines, enabling timely conservation interventions.

 

“Bats can get a bad rap, but they play important ecological roles, and the value of bats often goes unrecognised.”

 

Bats comprise about 25% of all mammal species and are found on every continent except Antarctica. They help to control insect populations, providing a natural form of pest control, benefiting agriculture and reducing the need for chemical pesticides.

 

They also play key ecological roles in pollination and seed dispersal, helping to maintain healthy ecosystems.

 

Findings of the scoping review revealed a growing number of citizen science projects across the globe in bat research and conservation, with recent research expanding geographic coverage, making advances in acoustic monitoring technology, and having stronger links to conservation outcomes.

 

The most common methods used in citizen science bat projects were acoustic surveys, however observations such as bat roost emergent counts, technical field research, desktop analyses of existing datasets such as iNaturalist, interviews, questionnaires and bat box monitoring also played key roles.

 

“Bats face multiple anthropogenic threats, including habitat clearing, collisions with wind turbines and persecution, often driven by fear or misinformation,” Ms Sheldrick said.

 

“Yes, they can sometimes find their way into roofs, sheds, chimneys, or other parts of buildings, but with a little care and education, we can coexist safely with our wildlife neighbours, while still enjoying the benefits of a healthy local ecosystem.

 

“It might not always be possible for everyone to get involved in a citizen science program, but every one of us can help by learning more about bats and how to support them.

 

“If you find a bat in your roof or house, don’t panic and don’t touch it. There are some simple steps you can take to help, like leaving an exit option open, turning off overhead fans and dimming the lights so they feel more comfortable to fly away.”

 

Members of the community can find more information about what to do if they find a bat on their property on the Australian Bat Society website, where they can also stay up to date with opportunities to get  involved in community events and bat conservation.

 

Citizen science surveys were undertaken with relevant permits and under the supervision of trained ecologists.

 

The full research Citizen science for bat research and conservation: An international scoping review is available in The British Ecological Society Journal.

Ecologist measuring Gould's wattled bat Chalinolobus gouldi

Credit

Photo: David Cuddihy

Journal

Ecological Solutions and Evidence

DOI

10.1002/2688-8319.70225 

Method of Research

News article

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

Citizen science for bat research and conservation: An international scoping review

 

Industrial chemicals delay recovery of the ozone layer

Ozone protection under pressure

Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology (Empa)

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The Jungfraujoch high alpine research station is located at 3,580 meters above sea level on a mountain saddle in the central Swiss Alps.

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Credit: Empa

Although ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride (CCl₄) or certain chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are no longer used in refrigerators and foams, they continue to serve as feedstocks in industrial processes for the production of modern refrigerants and plastics. Until now, these so-called feedstock chemicals have flown under the radar of international agreements because the quantities produced and leakage rates were significantly underestimated.

Working with international research groups, Empa researchers have now used global measurements to show that during the production and processing of these substances, approximately three to four percent escapes into the atmosphere through leaks. Furthermore, their use has increased significantly in recent decades. In a study published in Nature Communications, they have now calculated that, as a result, the ozone layer is likely to recover about seven years later than previously assumed – unless emissions are reduced. “These substances are not only ozone-depleting but also highly harmful to the climate. Lower emissions would thus benefit both the ozone layer and the climate,” says Stefan Reimann, an atmospheric scientist at Empa and lead author of the study.

Measurements show higher emissions

When the Montreal Protocol was negotiated in the 1980s and later strengthened, it led to a global ban on ozone-depleting substances in everyday products. Feedstock chemicals, however, were exempt from this ban. At the time, industry assumed that only about 0.5 percent of the quantities produced would escape into the atmosphere and that the use of these substances would decline in the long term. “But this assessment has not been accurate anymore for quite some time,” says Reimann. “Feedstock chemicals are now being released in increased quantities during production, transport, and further processing, and the volumes currently being produced are significantly larger than was assumed 30 years ago.”

These new findings are based on global atmospheric measurements from international networks such as the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE), which includes the Empa research station on the Jungfraujoch. Since many ozone-depleting substances remain in the atmosphere for decades, their concentrations allow conclusions to be drawn about global emissions. “We measure the concentrations of these substances in the atmosphere. Based on their lifetimes, we can calculate how much they should actually be decreasing. If they aren’t, emissions must still be occurring,” explains Martin Vollmer, an Empa researcher and co-author of the study.

A comparison of these measurements with the production figures officially reported by individual countries shows that today, an average of three to four percent of the feedstock produced enters the atmosphere – several times the originally assumed values. For carbon tetrachloride, which is particularly harmful to the ozone layer, emission rates are even above four percent.

Why usage is increasing

However, emissions are rising not only because of higher production losses, but also because the overall use of feedstock chemicals is increasing – by about 160 percent since the year 2000. Some of these feedstocks were initially used to produce hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), which were introduced as refrigerant substitutes following the ban on CFCs. Since these substitutes later proved to be potent greenhouse gases, they are now being phased out under the so-called Kigali Amendment. They are increasingly being replaced by hydrofluoroolefins (HFOs), which have little impact on the climate but whose production again relies heavily on ozone-depleting feedstock chemicals.

Added to this is a rapidly growing use in the polymer industry – for example, in the production of fluoropolymers such as Teflon (PTFE) or polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), an important material in lithium-ion batteries for electric cars. “The quantities of feedstock are not decreasing but will continue to grow, at least in the coming years,” says Reimann.

Both the ozone layer and the climate are affected

Based on these developments, the international research team calculated various future scenarios. They compared, for example, the originally assumed, very low emission rates with the values measured today from the use of feedstock chemicals. The established benchmark from 1980, when global ozone depletion was first observed, serves as a reference. Until now, it was assumed that this original state of the ozone layer would be reached again around the year 2066. However, the new calculations show that if feedstock emissions remain at current levels, this timeline will shift by about seven years. The stratospheric ozone layer would therefore not fully recover until around 2073. The margin of uncertainty for this estimate ranges from six to eleven years.

However, the feedstock chemicals released not only damage the ozone layer but also act as powerful greenhouse gases. If nothing changes, these additional climate-damaging emissions will reach around 300 million metric tons of CO₂ equivalents per year by mid-century – comparable to the current annual CO₂ emissions of a country like England or France. Reducing these emissions would therefore have a dual benefit.

Whether these emissions will be reduced in the future through binding emission limits or a targeted restriction of particularly problematic substances is, according to Stefan Reimann, ultimately a political decision. Even though the Montreal Protocol continues to be regarded as one of the greatest successes of international environmental policy, it should be regularly reviewed and, if necessary, adapted in light of new scientific findings. “The Montreal Protocol was successful because science, politics, and industry worked closely together. Such cooperation is crucial again today to address new challenges,” says Reimann.

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Journal

Nature Communications

DOI

10.1038/s41467-026-70533-w 

Method of Research

Computational simulation/modeling

Article Title

Continuing Industrial Emissions Are Delaying the Recovery of the Stratospheric Ozone Layer

Article Publication Date

16-Apr-2026

A regulatory loophole could delay ozone recovery by years

Scientists say an exception in the Montreal Protocol for the use of ozone-depleting feedstocks could set the ozone recovery back seven years.

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

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Often hailed as the most successful international environmental agreement of all time, the 1987 Montreal Protocol continues to successfully phase out the global production of chemicals that were creating a growing hole in the ozone layer, causing skin cancer and other adverse health effects.

MIT-led studies have since shown the subsequent reduction in ozone-depleting substances is helping stratospheric ozone to recover. (It could return to 1980 levels by as early as 2040, according to some estimates.) But the Montreal Protocol made an exception in its rules for the use of ozone-depleting substances as feedstocks in the production of other materials. That’s because it was thought that only a small amount — just 0.5 percent — of the ozone-depleting substances used for this purpose would leak into the atmosphere.

In recent years, however, scientists have observed more ozone-depleting substances in the atmosphere than expected, and have increased their estimates of leakage from feedstocks.

Now an international group of scientists, including researchers from MIT, has calculated the impact of different feedstock leakage rates on the ozone’s fragile recovery. They find the higher leakage rates, if not addressed by the Montreal Protocol, could delay ozone recovery by about seven years.

“We’ve realized in the last few years that these feedstock chemicals are a bug in the system,” says author Susan Solomon, the Lee and Geraldine Martin Professor of Environmental Studies and Chemistry, who was part of the original research team that linked the chemicals to the ozone hole. “Production of ozone-depleting substances has pretty much ceased around the world except for this one use, which is when you have a chemical you convert into something else.”

The paper, which will be published in Nature Communications, is the first to comprehensively quantify the impact of leaked feedstocks, which are currently used to make plastics and nonstick chemicals. They are also used to make substitute chemicals for the ones regulated under the Montreal Protocol. The researchers say it shows the importance of curbing use and preventing leakage of such feedstocks, especially as the production of their end products, like plastic, is projected to grow.

“We’ve gotten to the point where, if we want the protocol to be as successful in the future as it has been in the past, the parties really need to think about how to tighten up the emissions of these industrial processes,” says first author Stefan Reimann of the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology.

“To me, it’s only fair, because so many other things have already been completely discontinued. So why should this exemption exist if it’s going to be damaging?” says Solomon.

Joining Reimann on the paper are his colleagues Martin K. Vollmer and Lukas Emmenegger; Luke Western and Susan Solomon of the MIT Center for Sustainability Science and Strategy and the Department of Earth, Atmospheric and Planetary Sciences; David Sherry of Nolan-Sherry and Associates Ltd; Megan Lickley of Georgetown University; Lambert Kuijpers of the A/gent Consultancy b.v.; Stephen A. Montzka and John Daniel of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration; Matthew Rigby of the University of Bristol; Guus J.M. Velders of Utrecht University; Qing Liang of the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center; and Sunyoung Park of Kyungpook National University.

Repairing the ozone

In 1985, scientists discovered a growing hole in the ozone layer over Antarctica that was allowing more of the sun’s harmful ultraviolet radiation to reach Earth’s surface. The following year, researchers including Solomon traveled to Antarctica and discovered the cause of the ozone deterioration: a class of chemicals called chlorofluorocarbons, or CFCs, which were then used in refrigeration, air conditioning, and aerosols.

The revelations led to the Montreal Protocol, an international treaty involving 197 countries and the European Union restricting the use of CFCs. The subsequent decision to exempt the use of ozone-depleting substances for use as feedstocks was based partially on industry estimates of how much of their feedstocks leaked.

“It was thought that the emissions of these substances as a feedstock were minor compared to things like refrigerants and foams,” Western says. “It was also believed that leakage from these sources was minor — around half a percent of what went in — because people would essentially be leaking their profits if their feedstocks were released into the atmosphere.”

Unfortunately, some of those assumptions are no longer true. Western and Reimann are part of the Advanced Global Atmospheric Gases Experiment (AGAGE), a global monitoring network co-founded by Ronald Prinn, MIT’s TEPCO Professor of Atmospheric Science. AGAGE monitors emissions of ozone-depleting substances around the world, and in recent years researchers have revised their estimates of feedstock leakage upwards, to about 3.6 percent. For some chemicals, the number was even higher.

In the new paper, the researchers estimated a 3.6 percent feedstock leakage as the baseline for most chemicals. They compared that with a scenario where 0.5 percent of feedstocks are leaked from 2025 onward and a scenario with zero feedstock-related emissions. The researchers also looked at production trends between 2014 and 2024 to project how much of each specific ozone-depleting chemical would be used as feedstock between 2025 and 2100.

The analysis shows that until 2050, total ozone-depleting chemical emissions decrease in all scenarios as rising feedstock emissions are offset by declining uses enforced by the Montreal Protocol. In the scenario with continued 3.6 percent leakage, however, emissions level off around 2045, and total emissions only decrease by 50 percent overall by 2100.

The researchers then evaluated the impact of feedstock-related emissions on stratospheric ozone depletion. In the scenario where feedstock leakage is 0.5 percent, the ozone returns to its 1980 status by 2066. In the scenario with zero feedstock leakage, the ozone reclaims its 1980 health in 2065. But in the baseline scenario, the recovery is delayed about seven years, to 2073.

“This paper sends an important message that these emissions are too high and we have to find a way to reduce them,” Reimann says. “Either that means no longer using these substances as feedstocks, swapping out chemicals, or reducing the leakage emissions when they are used.”

A global response

Solomon is confident industries will be able to adjust to the latest findings.

“There are a lot of innovators in the chemical industry,” Solomon says. “They make new chemicals and improve chemicals for a living. It’s true they can perhaps get too entrenched with certain chemicals, but it doesn’t happen that often. Actually, they’re usually quite willing to consider alternatives. There are thousands of other chemicals that could be used instead, so why not switch? That’s been the attitude.”

Solomon says the fact that AGAGE can detect the impact of feedstock emissions is a testament to the progress the world has made in reducing emissions from other sources up to this point. She believes raising awareness of the feedstock problem is the first step. 

“This isn't the first time that the AGAGE Network has made measurements that have allowed the world to see we need to do a little better here or there,” Western says. “Often, it’s just a mistake. Sometimes all it takes is making people more aware of these things to tighten up some processes.”

Members of the Montreal Protocol meet every year. In those meetings, they split into working groups around different topics. Feedstock emissions are already one of those topics, so participants will review the evidence together. Typically, they release a statement about mitigation strategies if needed.

“We wanted to raise the warning flag that something is wrong here,” Reimann says. “We could reduce the period of ozone depletion by years. It might not sound like a long time, but if you could count the skin cancer cases you’d avoid in that time, it would seem quite significant.”

The work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation, NASA, the Swiss Federal Office for the Environment, the VoLo Foundation, the United Kingdom Natural Environment Research Council, and the Korea Meteorological Administration Research and Development Program.

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Journal

Nature Communications

Article Title

“Continuing industrial emissions are delaying the recovery of the stratospheric ozone layer”