Heels and flat feet, from Neanderthals to Homo sapiens

Università di Bologna

Facebook

XLinkedInWeChatBlueskyMessageWhatsAppEmail

In all likelihood, the Neanderthals had flat feet. But it was not a defect at all. Instead, it was the consequence of a precise functional strategy to reduce impact stress under heavy loads and maximize stability on mountainous or rough terrain.

This is just one of the news items that emerged from a study – published in the Journal of Human Evolution – that analysed for the first time the three-dimensional external shape of the entire heel of Neanderthals, comparing it with that of our species, Homo sapiens.

"The human foot is one of the anatomical structures that best demonstrate our complex evolutionary history, and among the bones it is composed of, the heel plays a crucial role: it is the first structure to touch the ground when walking, cushioning the impact and transmitting the forces to push us forward," explains Maria Giovanna Belcastro, professor at the Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences of the University of Bologna, who coordinated the study. "The 3D analysis of the fossil heels of our ancient cousins, the Neanderthals, has therefore allowed us to highlight both an extraordinary biomechanical adaptation to withstand heavy loads and rough terrains, and the impact of modern life and footwear on our feet."

The researchers have analysed and compared the heels of 7 individuals of the Homo neanderthalensis species with those of 64 individuals of Homo sapiens, ranging from hunter-gatherers of the Pleistocene to farmers of the Iron Age, up to a post-industrial urban population preserved in the Documented Human Osteological Collection of the Certosa Cemetery of Bologna. To do this, they applied advanced 3D geometric morphometry techniques to digital models obtained with laser scans and computed tomography.

The results show clear and fascinating differences. First, compared to the heels of modern humans, those of Neanderthals were shorter, wider and taller. But one of the most surprising aspects concerns the posture and stability of the Neanderthal foot. Geometric analysis indicates that Neanderthals’ foot posture habitually showed pronation. In addition, the study highlights a lower lateral longitudinal arch in Neanderthals, which offered greater flexibility and mobility in the central part of the foot. In short, Neanderthals had a flat foot and used this posture to maximize stability and reduce impact stress under heavy loads.

"The robustness of the heel reflects the overall body structure of Neanderthals, which is characterized by a remarkable muscular and bone mass and an extremely intense level of physical activity," confirms Belcastro. "These physical characteristics indicate an adaptation aimed at promoting a greater load-bearing capacity on the back of the foot and a high mobility on uneven ground."

Looking instead at our species, the researchers observed that the prehistoric hunter-gatherers of Homo sapiens - who travelled long distances barefoot or with soft footwear - showed heels with characteristics of robustness more similar to those of Neanderthals than modern post-industrial populations.

The individuals who have lived in the last centuries have heels that are much weaker, due to a sedentary lifestyle and the habitual use of rigid and closed footwear. This is because the use of shoes with rigid soles tends to limit the inversion and eversion movements of the foot, tightening the ankle: a clear sign of skeletal gracilization due to a drastic reduction in natural biomechanical stimuli.

"The morphology of our skeleton is not only the product of a strict genetic program, but also the consequence of physical stimuli and our daily life habits", explains Belcastro. "The results of this study therefore offer a fundamental contribution to better understand how our ancestors moved in their natural environment and open fascinating prospects for dialogue between evolutionary anthropology and clinical orthopaedics."

The study was published in the Journal of Human Evolution with the title “Neanderthal’s heel: How the Neanderthal’s external calcaneal shape uniquely differs from that of modern humans.” The research was led by Rita Sorrentino (currently a professor at the University of Palermo but active at the University of Bologna from 2015 to 2026) and coordinated by Professor Maria Giovanna Belcastro (Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences of the University of Bologna), together with a multidisciplinary team that includes other scholars of the University of Bologna (Professor Stefano Benazzi, Carla Figus and Teresa Nicolosi from the Department of Cultural Heritage, professors Michele Conconi and Nicola Sancisi from the Department of Industrial Engineering), and of the IRCCS Rizzoli Orthopaedic Institute (Claudio Belvedere and Alberto Leardini from the laboratory of motion analysis and functional evaluation of prostheses).

---

Journal

Journal of Human Evolution

DOI

10.1016/j.jhevol.2026.103887

Article Title

Neanderthal’s heel: How the Neanderthal’s external calcaneal shape uniquely differs from that of modern humans

 

Exploring African DNA can transform understanding of human genetics – what does that mean for medicine?

Why African genomics holds the key to precision medicine and global health equity

Taylor & Francis Group

Facebook

XLinkedInWeChatBlueskyMessageWhatsApp
Email

Africa is home to more human genetic diversity than anywhere else on Earth. The average African genome shows nearly a million more genetic variants than the average non-African genome.

But this wealth of data remains largely unexplored, with African populations historically underrepresented in research. Less than 3% of global genomic datasets and genome-wide association studies include participants of African descent.

Renowned African researchers have released a new book to explain what we know about the continent’s remarkable genetic diversity, showcase on-the-ground research being carried out today and set out a roadmap for future discoveries.

Genomics in Africa is designed to support the next generation of African scientists, providing vital information for researchers, funders and policymakers working to advance genomics and precision medicine in the continent.

It is co-edited by Professor Segun Fatumo of Queen Mary University of London, and Dr Tinashe Chikowore of Harvard Medical School, who believe there is an urgent need to invest in African genomics research.

Professor Fatumo says: “Genetic research on the African continent could create more effective precision medicine, improve global drug development, and help scientists understand everything from our evolutionary history to why some people develop particular diseases.”

Why is Africa so genetically diverse?

While there is a lot we don’t know about human evolution and background, it is accepted that early Homo sapiens evolved in Africa approximately 300,000 years ago. Over millennia, we spread across the continent and settled all over it.

At some point between 50,000 and 70,000 years ago, a small band of people left Africa. This might have been a single tribe or group of tribes, and it likely had only a few thousand people of childbearing age.

There have been other migrations, but this particular one – known as the Southern Route or Southern Dispersal – is believed to be the founder population which colonised the rest of the world and interbred with archaic humans such as Neanderthals and Denisovans.

The small size of this founder population means all modern humans with ancestry outside Africa share a high degree of genetic similarity.

While we can’t know exactly how many people in total were living on the African continent at that time, we do know that the population the group left was much larger and much more genetically diverse. This means many gene variants not present in the handful of people who left Africa have been passed down and are thriving in people of African genetic heritage.

What would more research tell us?

Ambroise Wonkam, Professor of Medical Genetics at Johns Hopkins School of Medicine and current President of the African Society of Human Genetics said of the work: “Increasing the number of sequenced African genomes will refine tools for predicting disease-related variants, improve diagnoses, and enhance precision medicine.

“Ultimately, investing in African genomics promotes both scientific innovation and health equity worldwide.”

Professor Segun Fatumo and Dr Tinashe Chikowore suggest that further research into African genomics could also develop and improve treatments of inherited diseases which predominantly affect African populations, such as sickle cell disease.

African researchers are currently exploring research into infectious diseases, cardiometabolic traits, cancer, mental health traits and medicine sensitivities – but the authors argue more investment both in research and infrastructure is needed to unlock the potential of these studies.

They propose a ten-year strategic roadmap for research leaders, funders, and governments planning future genomic initiatives on the continent.

“Research into these areas is essential to ensure that people with African genetic heritage can experience the full benefit of precision medicine and gene therapies,” Professor Fatumo explains. “Genetic variation could mean they react differently to treatments or medicines developed for the population outside Africa, so for true health equity there is an urgent case to expand on current scientific knowledge.”

---

DOI

10.1201/9781003436584 

 

Fatal Neanderthal wound may be earliest evidence of a wooden spear attack on a human ancestor

University of Cambridge

Facebook

XLinkedIn
MessageWhatsAppEmail

video: 

A video of a 3D rendering of the hole in the scapula and fragments embedded in the sediment underneath the scapula in situ prior to conservation.

view more 

Credit: Dr Emma Pomeroy

• Circular hole in 75,000-year-old scapula suggests lethal conflict involving sharpened wooden spears among Neanderthals in the Middle East.
   
• Remains also show evidence of brutal facial injury at least a year before death, meaning Neanderthal was likely cared for prior to dying violently.

A round hole in the shoulder blade (scapula) of a Neanderthal whose partial remains were unearthed in a cave in Iraqi Kurdistan may be the earliest known example of lethal interpersonal violence with a wooden spear in the hominin fossil record.

The Neanderthal’s scapula – a broad, flat bone so thin in places it becomes almost translucent when held up to light – was preserved almost intact under seven-and-a-half metres of rock and sediment for around 75,000 years.

Intact, that is, apart from the 15mm-wide circular perforation, which Cambridge archaeologists who led the excavation say was made by a spear of sharpened wood, as a spear tip of flint or stone would leave a flat or angular hole.

The spear penetrated the left chest cavity from the front and travelled through the body – including lung and likely major arteries – before punching a hole in the left scapula, causing rapid death. Researchers think the fatal strike may have been an intended “heart shot”.

Bevelling around the hole is typical of an exit wound. The team found tiny shards of bone displaced by the weapon, the position of which suggests a spear entered from above at a downward trajectory. They were even able to piece back part of the hole using these fragments, guided by faint ridges where the bone was marked by muscle.

“It’s extraordinary to have a perfectly preserved scapula from 75,000 years ago. These bones are so thin that you often don’t get complete scapulae from modern burials,” said Dr Emma Pomeroy, study lead author from Cambridge’s Department of Archaeology. “We were able to lift it out in one piece from under almost eight metres of rock and sediment.”

Archaeologists call the remains Shanidar A, named for the famous cave in which they were found, and have published their findings in the journal Scientific Reports.

Due to decomposition, very few wooden objects survive from deep in prehistory. Some waterlogged examples of spears dated to around 200,000 years ago – when early Neanderthals roamed Europe – were found in Schöningen, Germany, in the 1990s.  

These preserved spears – some over two metres long – were manufactured from carefully-selected timber to have weight distribution optimised for throwing, like modern javelins, and were probably used for hunting large game.

The earliest known rounded wooden spear is over 400,000 years old. Just the pointed end survived, pulled from the UK shoreline at Clacton-on-Sea in 1911.

Similar technology may well have caused the death of Shanidar A, argue researchers. They say the wound could be the first evidence for use of sharpened wooden spears in the prehistoric Middle East.

“Holes left by recreations of spears from this time are an excellent fit for the one we found in the Neanderthal scapula,” said Pomeroy, a fellow at Newnham College, Cambridge. “That early technology absolutely works for this wound.”

“What evidence we have suggests that Neanderthals and their ancestors developed woodworking and weapon-making skills many thousands of years before the death of Shanidar A. This package of capabilities could have spanned the full range of Neanderthal homelands, from Wales to Siberia.”

Pomeroy points out that the death might have been a hunting accident. “Animals such as mammoths may have been hunted up close with thrusting spears, so it’s easy to imagine lethal injuries.”

However, she says there are hints of deliberate violence. “The position of the wound and the force required to push it right through the Neanderthal’s body bear the hallmarks of an intended kill shot directed towards the heart.”  

There is no way of knowing the context for the violence, and whether modern humans could have been involved, although archaeologists believe the most straightforward interpretation is interpersonal violence between Neanderthals.

“All we can ever know about the end of this Neanderthal’s life is that it was violent, and came at the end of a wooden spear,” said Prof Graeme Barker, fellow of St. John’s College, Cambridge, who leads the Shanidar Cave excavations.

“Evidence of systematic violence is extremely rare in deep prehistory. The vast majority comes from periods of settled farming communities thousands of years after hunter-gather societies like our Neanderthals.” 

Split tooth and signs of caring

The shoulder blade was excavated alongside a mostly complete right hand, two left ribs plus a right-rib fragment, and seven teeth – all that remains of an adult Neanderthal estimated to have been around 45 years old when they died violently.

One tooth, an incisor from the front of the lower jaw, had been split lengthways, with only half remaining, while surrounding teeth had been rotated inward.

The half-tooth had significant tartar (dental calculus) build-up along the exposed root canal, suggesting it stayed in the mouth for some time after what scientists say must have been major blunt-force trauma to the front of the face.

“Surviving a blow that splits a tooth in this fashion, then continuing to live and eat for a period of at least a year and maybe more, would have required care and support from other Neanderthals,” said Pomeroy.

Shanidar A may have been fed soft food after the initial injury, says Pomeroy. Previous research on sediment in Shanidar Cave shows that plant foods were being soaked before cooking around the same time. “There’s no doubt that Shanidar A would have had difficulty communicating and been in absolute agony for a long period of time.”

“The remains of Shanidar A reflect the dual nature of so much of what we recognise as human. On the one hand, we have evidence of a terribly violent end. On the other, this was clearly an individual who was cared for during their lifetime.”

Prof Barker said: “It is fascinating to have evidence for both compassion and violence amongst Neanderthals, our closest evolutionary cousins, embodied in this one individual.” 

‘Funerary behaviour’

The vast cave in the foothills of Iraqi Kurdistan known as Shanidar is one of the world’s most famous Neanderthal sites. Excavations in the 1950s led by Ralph Solecki found ten individuals, including a “cluster” of four located in the same spot despite dying at different times, suggesting the Neanderthals had returned to inter their dead.

Remains of a Neanderthal from another part of the cave, who lived thousands of years later, showed evidence of a paralysed arm, arthritis, deafness and partial blindness. Yet they had lived a long life, so must have been cared for.

These signs of compassion, social support, and ritual around death, led to a revision of the Victorian view of Neanderthals as brutish and subhuman. Evidence of sophistication has continued to emerge, from cave art to jewellery, along with genetic analysis showing interbreeding between Neanderthals and modern humans.

Shanidar A was unearthed in 2020, and is one of three further Neanderthals found in the burial cluster by the Cambridge-led team since 2015, taking the total to five – four adults and an infant – in an area of the cave just 1.5 metres long by one metre wide, and a metre deep.

The spot is located directly behind a large vertical boulder, a “prominent marker”, and the remains are separated by thin layers of sediment. Shanidar A is the deepest yet found in the cluster, and possibly the first lain to rest in the space, positioned on their back, head facing east, as with the body directly above.

“The best explanation is intentional and symbolic funerary behaviour,” said Pomeroy. “These Neanderthals returned to the same place to lay their dead to rest. Some were deposited before the earlier body had fully decomposed, so this was happening within years or decades.”

---

Journal

Scientific Reports

DOI

10.1038/s41598-026-69193-z

Article Title

Evidence for funerary behaviour and lethal trauma in a new Neanderthal individual from Shanidar Cave

Article Publication Date

15-Oct-2026

The ventral (left) and dorsal (right) views of the Shanidar A scapula. Ventral is the front of the scapula, the side that faces the ribs (chest). Dorsal is the back of the scapula.

Credit

Dr Emma Pomeroy

View of the entrance to Shanidar Cave in Iraqi Kurdistan.

Credit

Prof Graeme Barker

Various views of the mandibular left lateral incisor that had been spilt longitudinally. Views of the tooth, from left to right: top (chewing surface), bottom (root end). Middle: toward the front of the dental arch (mesial), toward the lips (labial), toward the back of the dental arch (distal), and toward the tongue (lingual).

 

The hole in the scapula and the fragments found embedded in the sediment below the perforation. Top left: Ventral view of the hole in the scapula, showing two refitting fragments. Top right: The linea muscularis, highlighted by the dashed line, indicates that the fragments are correctly refitted. Bottom: 3D rendering of the hole and fragments embedded in the sediment underneath the scapula in situ prior to conservation.

Credit

Dr Emma Pomeroy

The left scapula of Shanidar A, photographed in the University of Cambridge’s Leverhulme Centre for Human Evolutionary Studies.

Credit

University of Cambridge

B roll of the scapula of Shanidar A [VIDEO] 

Ancient DNA identifies 146,000 year-old 'Dragon Man' as a Denisovan

Joseph Shavit
Updated Sun, October 11, 2026



Ancient DNA from tooth plaque and proteins from skull bone identify China's Dragon Man as Denisovan, revealing detailed anatomy. (CREDIT: The Brighter Side of News)

Ancient DNA and proteins identify China's nearly complete "Dragon Man" skull as Denisovan.

The fossil, at least 146,000 years old, connects molecular evidence with detailed Denisovan skull anatomy.

DNA came from hardened tooth plaque and proteins from skull bone; the lineage's formal species name remains unresolved.

A trace of hardened plaque on a single surviving molar helped solve the identity of one of Asia's most puzzling human fossils. The nearly complete Harbin skull, nicknamed "Dragon Man," belonged to a Denisovan, an extinct human lineage closely related to Neanderthals.

Two molecular studies published in 2025 supplied complementary evidence. A team led by Qiaomei Fu of the Chinese Academy of Sciences' Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology recovered mitochondrial DNA from dental calculus. A separate analysis recovered ancient proteins from skull bone.

The findings appeared in Cell00627-0) and Science. Together, they connect a richly preserved skull with a lineage previously represented mainly by fragmentary remains.

"This is a pin in the map we can use to say, 'This is what Denisovans looked like,'" said Carina Schlebusch, an evolutionary anthropologist at Uppsala University who was not involved in either study.

An ancient skull discovered near Harbin, China, reveals evidence of an extinct human lineage. (CREDIT: Hebei GEO University)

A recognizable skull with an uncertain identity

The Harbin cranium comes from Heilongjiang Province in northeastern China. Direct uranium-series dating established a minimum age of approximately 146,000 years, rather than an exact date for the individual's life.

Its preservation makes it especially valuable. The skull is nearly complete and undistorted, retaining features that small teeth or bone fragments cannot reveal together.

When researchers described it in 2021, its large size, thick brow ridges and heavy upper jaw attracted attention. Hebei GEO University researcher Ji Qiang and colleagues proposed a new species, Homo longi, with the name referring to "dragon."

Other researchers suspected a Denisovan connection because of the fossil's location, age and anatomy. However, comparisons of shape produced conflicting interpretations of its relationship to other ancient humans.

Some analyses grouped Harbin with the Denisovan-associated Xiahe jaw from the Tibetan Plateau. Others separated them, illustrating the difficulty of assigning fossils to populations using anatomy alone.

Denisovans were first recognized as a distinct lineage through genetic evidence in 2010. Connecting their molecular identity with informative skull anatomy remained a major gap in reconstructing human evolution across Asia.

Researchers recovered ancient DNA from dental plaque on a skeleton's only surviving molar. (CREDIT: Institute of Vertebrate Paleontology and Paleoanthropology, Chinese Academy of Sciences)

Hardened plaque succeeds where bone DNA fails

Fu's team initially searched for ancient DNA in samples from the skull's petrous bone and tooth material. Those attempts did not recover usable ancient human DNA

The researchers then turned to dental calculus, the mineralized plaque attached to the remaining molar. Its hardened structure can preserve biological material long after other sources become unusable.

A sample weighing just 0.3 milligrams yielded ancient mitochondrial DNA. That genetic material comes from the cell's energy-producing mitochondria and provides evidence about maternal ancestry.

Modern contamination complicated the analysis. Nearly four-fifths of the human genetic material extracted from the sample came from modern sources, making careful identification of the ancient component essential.

The surviving ancient sequences matched Denisovan mitochondrial DNA. Comparisons also linked Harbin to an early Denisovan lineage represented by individuals from Siberia. This was not a complete nuclear genome, which would offer a broader account of the individual's ancestry. The independent protein evidence therefore adds an important second line of support.

"We can finally clearly show it's Denisovan DNA, and it's related to early Denisovans," Fu said.

The result demonstrates why researchers sometimes need to examine unexpected parts of a fossil. It also shows that unsuccessful DNA recovery from dense bone does not necessarily exhaust a specimen's molecular evidence.

The Harbin cranium and geographic location of hominin specimens older than 100 ka where human DNA has been retrieved. (CREDIT: Qiaomei Fu et al, Cell)
Skull proteins provide an independent check

The protein study followed a different route, using two samples from the petrous bone. This distinction matters: its evidence did not come from the same plaque sample that yielded mitochondrial DNA.

The researchers identified 95 ancient proteins after separating likely contaminants from material belonging to the fossil. Chemical changes associated with degradation helped authenticate the ancient proteins.

Their analysis recovered 19,299 peptides, the smaller protein fragments used to reconstruct sequences. That provided substantially more protein information than earlier studies of several other ancient human specimens.

Because DNA directs protein production, differences in protein sequences can reveal inherited variation. Researchers compared Harbin's sequences with those associated with Denisovans, Neanderthals, modern humans and other apes.

One Denisovan-associated amino acid variant was supported with high confidence. Two additional variants offered potential support, although the paper treated those identifications as less reliable.

A broader analysis of protein sequences also placed Harbin with Denisovans. The grouping received 98% or 100% statistical support, depending on the comparison dataset, reinforcing the conclusion from mitochondrial DNA.

"Taking the two studies together, it's pretty clear this is a Denisovan individual," said Bence Viola, a University of Toronto paleoanthropologist who was not involved in either study.

Geographic locations and proteomic profiles for the Pleistocene hominin individuals with palaeoproteomic data. (CREDIT: Qiaomei Fu et al, Science)

A better reference for Asia's ancient humans

Harbin gives researchers an anatomical reference anchored by molecular identification. Its skull and tooth features can now guide comparisons with fossils from excavations and museum collections.

That could help assess specimens whose identities remain uncertain. However, resemblance to Harbin would be a reason for further investigation, rather than automatic proof of Denisovan ancestry.

Earlier molecular work had already connected fossils from Siberia, the Tibetan Plateau and Taiwan with Denisovans. The Harbin findings add northeastern China to that evidence and strengthen the picture of a geographically widespread lineage.

The protein paper points to Denisovan populations occupying varied environments, including low-lying plains, high plateaus and subtropical woodlands. Establishing relationships among those populations will require additional molecular sampling.

A 2019 study attempted to reconstruct Denisovan anatomy from DNA methylation patterns, proposing features including a long face and wider pelvis. Such predictions addressed a sparse fossil record, but Harbin now offers direct cranial anatomy for comparison.

The skull does not reveal the complete Denisovan body or every population's appearance. It does provide a much fuller view of one individual than the fragments that previously dominated molecularly identified remains.

Proteomic profile of the Harbin cranium. Composition across the 95 proteins retrieved for the Harbin individual. "Plasma proteins" here refers to nonmatrisome plasma proteins. (CREDIT: Qiaomei Fu et al, Science)

The lineage is clearer than the species name

Identifying Harbin as Denisovan does not settle every taxonomic question. Researchers still debate how to classify Denisovans and Neanderthals, including whether to recognize separate species or categories within Homo sapiens.

Genetic evidence shows that Denisovans interbred with modern humans. That history complicates simple divisions, while leaving their identification as a distinct ancient lineage well supported.

The name Homo longi also depends on which other fossils ultimately prove to be Denisovan. If an older applicable species name already exists, taxonomic priority could affect the name used for the group.

"Until we know which specimens are Denisovans, we can't be sure which name is valid," Viola said. Harbin's molecular identity is now much clearer, while its formal classification remains open.

Dig deeper into Denisovan fossils and ancient molecules

These studies explore how genomes, proteins and anatomical predictions have expanded the evidence for Denisovans across Asia.

A High-Coverage Genome Sequence from an Archaic Denisovan Individual: This foundational genome study established a detailed genetic reference for Denisovans and investigated their contributions to living populations. (Science, 2012)

A late Middle Pleistocene Denisovan mandible from the Tibetan Plateau: Ancient proteins identified the Xiahe jaw, connecting Denisovans with a fossil outside Siberia. (Nature, 2019)

Middle and Late Pleistocene Denisovan subsistence at Baishiya Karst Cave: Archaeological and protein analyses investigate Denisovan occupation and animal use on the Tibetan Plateau. (Nature, 2024)

A male Denisovan mandible from Pleistocene Taiwan: Protein evidence identifies the Penghu jaw as Denisovan, extending the lineage's confirmed fossil distribution. (Science, 2025)

Reconstructing Denisovan Anatomy Using DNA Methylation Maps: This study explores an indirect method for predicting Denisovan anatomical traits from reconstructed gene-regulation patterns. (Cell, 2019)

Research findings are available online in the journals Cell00627-0) and [Science]

https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adu9677

'It's a portrait of their actual ancestor': Facial reconstruction of Indigenous man who lived in Ecuador 3,000 years ago shared with his descendants

Tom Metcalfe
Fri, October 2, 2026 


Key takeaways

An international team has reconstructed the face of a man who lived in what's now Ecuador more than 3,000 years ago, based on the Punin-2 skull found in the Chimborazo region.

The skull of a man who lived around 3,000 years ago in what is now Ecuador has been brought to digital "life" by a forensic craniofacial anthropologist. . | Credit: Dr Chris Rynn

An international team has reconstructed the face of a man who lived in what's now Ecuador more than 3,000 years ago and whose skull featured in one of history's great anthropological debates.

The facial reconstruction is based on the Punin-2 skull, which a farmer discovered in a ravine near the town of Punín in the Chimborazo region of Ecuador's central Andes in the 1970s.

A similar skull, Punin-1, had been found in the same ravine in 1923 during an expedition led by the American Museum of Natural History. Some scientists at that time suggested its physical features were archaic, especially its prominent brow.

As a result, scientists proposed in 1925 that the first Punin skull was evidence of Oceanic ancestry, possibly through ancient contact with people from Australia or the Pacific Islands.

The ancient sediment layer where it was found — and where the Punin-2 skull was also discovered about 50 years later — predated modern humans (Homo sapiens), prompting some to wonder if they came from a now-extinct relative, such as Homo erectus or the Neanderthals.

But later studies challenged these ideas, and the new facial reconstruction indicates the Punin-2 skull belonged to a modern human man with purely Native American ancestry.

Christopher Rynn, an independent forensic craniofacial anthropologist based in the U.K., said there's no question that the Punin-2 skull was an Indigenous American who originally had descended from an ancestral group of North Siberians and East Asians during the last ice age. "Punín-2 resembles an East Asian skull from the front, but not at all from the side," Rynn told Live Science.

Rynn's colleagues in Ecuador shared their access to the skull, and he started working on its reconstruction last year. The Punin-1 skull is now at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City.

The facial reconstruction from the Punin-2 skull shows an Indigenous American man, roughly in his 50s, who died more than 3,000 years ago. | Credit: Dr Chris Rynn

Rynn and his colleagues, led by the sculptor Hector Flores Franco from the University of Chimborazo in Ecuador, are raising funds for further investigations, which will include a reconstruction of the Punin-1 skull and attempt an ancient DNA analysis of both. "DNA will tell us the true genetic lineage," Rynn said.
Disputed dating

When the Punin-2 skull was discovered, researchers suggested it might be the same age as fossils of extinct ice age animals found in the ravine, including mastodons and giant sloths, that were dated to the Pleistocene epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago). Similar claims were made about the Punin-1 skull.

But geological studies of the ravine have since disproved this idea, suggesting instead that erosion and soil movements had mixed the much younger human remains with the Pleistocene fossils.

Rather, it appears the Punin-2 individual lived as a hunter-gatherer in the Chimborazo region between 3,000 and 4,000 years ago. According to recent anthropological and osteological studies, the man was aged about 50 when he died.

Rynn said he had purposefully learned as little about the skull's origin as possible so the face would be based solely on the skull's shape, rather than on his assumptions. But he did follow local guidance about the hairstyle shown on the reconstruction, which was unique to particular tribal groups in the Chimborazo region where the skull was found. The hair is black in color and parted in the middle; real hair will be used in a physical bust of the reconstruction due to be completed in 2027.

Credit: Dr Chris Rynn

"The hairstyle is very specific," Rynn said. "If it's wrong, it looks like a different tribe."

In addition, some of Rynn's early reconstructions made the eyes too protrusive, as they would be in a skull of East Asian origin, so he followed local advice to make them deeper set. The result is a face that looks distinctly Indigenous American. "It explains a lot to me about the broader nature of skull and face shape differences between Native Americans and East Asians," Rynn said.

Although this reconstruction is digital, it shows the muscles and tissues of the man who lived as a hunter-gatherer more than 3,000 years ago. | Credit: Dr Chris Rynn

Faces from the past

Facial reconstructions have been carried out from the remains of hundreds of ancient humans, because archaeologists think these faces provide an important connection to people who might otherwise exist only as old bones.

Rynn has also worked on the reconstruction of a Neanderthal face from about 50,000 years ago. He uses techniques developed at the University of Manchester in the 1970s that are now known as the "Manchester Method," although they are actually a combination of techniques from all around the world, he said.

For the Punin-2 skull reconstruction, Rynn combined digital techniques and partial physical reconstructions with wax to create the face, using libraries of data to determine the right thickness of tissues in particular places.

The digital face has been presented to a select group of people from the Chimborazo region who are likely to be the man's descendants. "It's a portrait of their actual ancestor," Rynn said. "They seem to like it!"