It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
In Corsica, a team of mycologists led by Toby Kiers is embarking on a groundbreaking research project to study the relationship between fungi and old-growth trees in the face of climate change. As temperatures rise and wildfires become more frequent, understanding how fungi help these trees adapt and survive is crucial.
Fungi, the true body of these organisms, consist of hair-like threads called hyphae, collectively known as mycelium. These hyphae serve as the transport system, shuttling nutrients across the forest floor. By digesting dead matter and recycling it into the soil, fungi contribute to the overall health of the ecosystem.
The team’s primary goal is to uncover how fungi support the ancient chestnut trees in the face of climatic extremes. By analyzing the DNA and RNA of the fungi found around the trees, they hope to determine their specific functions. Are they decomposing leaf litter, absorbing water, or transporting essential nutrients? Understanding these mechanisms could provide insights into making other trees more resilient.
However, studying fungi is no easy task. Over 90% of fungal species are yet to be discovered, despite mycologists identifying approximately 2,500 new ones each year. Collecting fungal DNA and RNA from wild soil presents additional challenges due to contamination from various organisms. Extracting delicate soil RNA requires precision and quick action to preserve its integrity.
The team meticulously collects soil samples from the forest floor, encasing them in vials on dry ice to preserve the RNA. These vials are then flown to the mainland, where further analysis will take place in the lab. By comparing the RNA with the genomes of known fungi, the team hopes to decipher the intricate relationship between fungi and trees.
This groundbreaking research has the potential to shed light on the importance of fungal health for the survival of forests and ultimately, our collective survival. By understanding how fungi support trees in the face of climate change, scientists can work towards developing strategies to protect and conserve these vital ecosystems.
Sources: – The Atlantic: – Image Source: Quentin van den Bossche
Assembly Theory: Bridging Physics And Biology To Unravel The Mysteries Of Evolution And Complexity
An international team of researchers has developed a new theoretical framework that bridges physics and biology to provide a unified approach for understanding how complexity and evolution emerge in nature.
This new work on ‘Assembly Theory’, published today (Wednesday October 4) in Nature, represents a major advance in our fundamental comprehension of biological evolution and how it is governed by the physical laws of the universe.
This research builds on the team’s previous work developing Assembly Theory as an empirically validated approach to life detection, with implications for the search for alien life and efforts to evolve new life forms in the laboratory.
Image credit: Dr Anna Tanczos, Sci-Comm Studios
In prior work, the team assigned a complexity score to molecules called the molecular assembly index, based on the minimal number of bond-forming steps required to build a molecule. They showed how this index is experimentally measurable and how high values correlate with life-derived molecules.
The new study introduces mathematical formalism around a physical quantity called ‘Assembly’ that captures how much selection is required to produce a given set of complex objects, based on their abundance and assembly indices.
“Assembly Theory provides a completely new lens for looking at physics, chemistry and biology as different perspectives of the same underlying reality,” explained lead author Professor Sara Walker, a theoretical physicist and origin of life researcher from Arizona State University.
“With this theory, we can start to close the gap between reductionist physics and Darwinian evolution – it’s a major step toward a fundamental theory unifying inert and living matter.”
The researchers demonstrated how Assembly Theory can be applied to quantify selection and evolution in systems ranging from simple molecules to complex polymers and cellular structures.
It explains both the discovery of new objects and the selection of existing ones, allowing open-ended increases in complexity characteristic of life and technology.
“Assembly Theory provides an entirely new way to look at the matter that makes up our world, as defined not just by immutable particles but by the memory needed to build objects through selection over time,” said Professor Lee Cronin, a chemist from the University of Glasgow and co-lead author.
“With further work, this approach has the potential to transform fields from cosmology to computer science. It represents a new frontier at the intersection of physics, chemistry, biology and information theory.”
The researchers aim to further refine Assembly Theory and explore its applications for characterizing known and unknown life, and testing hypotheses about how life emerges from non-living matter.
“A key feature of the theory is that it is experimentally testable,” says Cronin. “This opens up the exciting possibility of using Assembly Theory to design new experiments that could solve the origin of life by creating living systems from scratch in the laboratory.”
The theory opens up many new questions and research directions at the boundary of the physical and life sciences. Overall, Assembly Theory promises to provide profound new insights into the physics underlying biological complexity and evolutionary innovation.
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe Shatters Speed Record, Unravels Mysteries of the Sun
NASA’s Parker Solar Probe has set a new speed record, reaching a speed of 635,266 km/h during its latest approach to the Sun. This speed is faster than any other human-made object and would allow the probe to circle the Earth in less than 6 minutes. The record-breaking speed was achieved with the help of a gravity assist from Venus, which also allowed the probe to get closer to the Sun than ever before. Exploring and Understanding the Sun’s Corona
The primary mission of the Parker Solar Probe is to explore and understand the Sun’s corona and the behavior of heat, magnetic fields, and solar plasma within it. By studying the Sun up close, the probe aims to uncover the mysteries of solar activity and better predict space weather conditions. This is crucial for protecting sensitive solar-impacted infrastructure on Earth and in space.
The Parker Solar Probe’s previous speed record was set in February 2020 when it orbited the Sun at a speed of 393,044 km/h. The recent speed increase is a significant achievement for the mission and demonstrates the probe’s capabilities in navigating the extreme conditions near the Sun.
Unprecedented Proximity to the Sun
In addition to its speed record, the Parker Solar Probe also holds the record for the shortest distance from the Sun. On September 27, 2023, the probe raced past the Sun at a distance of only 7.26 million kilometers, closer than any previous spacecraft. This close proximity allows the probe to collect valuable data about the Sun’s corona and study phenomena such as solar wind and solar flares.
Impact on Space Weather Prediction and Infrastructure Protection
The data collected by the Parker Solar Probe will also contribute to our understanding of space weather and its impact on Earth. Space weather events, such as solar flares and coronal mass ejections, can disrupt satellite communications, interfere with GPS systems, and pose a threat to astronauts in space. By studying the Sun’s corona and the processes that drive space weather, scientists can develop better models and predictions to mitigate the impact of these events.
The Parker Solar Probe’s mission is part of NASA’s larger effort to explore the Sun and its effects on the solar system. In addition to the Parker Solar Probe, NASA has launched other missions, such as the Solar Dynamics Observatory and the Solar and Heliospheric Observatory, to study the Sun from different vantage points. These missions work together to provide a comprehensive view of the Sun and its dynamic behavior.
Overall, the Parker Solar Probe’s record-breaking speed and unprecedented proximity to the Sun are significant milestones in our quest to understand the Sun and its effects on our solar system. The data collected by the probe will not only advance our scientific knowledge but also help protect our infrastructure on Earth and in space from the impacts of space weather. As the probe continues its mission, scientists eagerly await the insights it will uncover about our nearest star.
When the Earth was still in its early stages of formation billions of years ago, it was surrounded by a global ocean of molten magma. This environment was vastly different from the conditions we experience today. However, this period played a crucial role in shaping the Earth’s chemical and physical structures.
Recent seismic imaging studies have revealed large enigmatic structures in the Earth’s mantle. These structures, located in the lowermost mantle, are believed to be remnants of the ancient global magma ocean. One key element in understanding these structures is iron, which tends to concentrate in the magma rather than the crystallized rocky layer of the mantle.
To further investigate this phenomenon, an international team of scientists, including researchers from ASU, conducted experiments using high-power laser beams to subject silicate magma to extreme pressures and temperatures. The experiments revealed that under these conditions, iron atoms rearrange their electronic structure into a low spin state, resulting in a denser state.
This atomic-scale transformation provides an explanation for why the magma becomes denser than crystals as the magma ocean solidifies, contributing to the formation and persistence of the observed structures in the deepest part of the mantle.
The findings also have implications for understanding super-Earth exoplanets, which are rocky planets with larger radii than Earth. The experiments reached pressure conditions similar to those expected in super-Earths and suggest that magma densification could occur to a greater extent in their magma oceans. This could potentially contribute to the generation of magnetic fields, which may then shield these planets’ thin atmospheres.
Overall, this research sheds light on the mysteries of iron atoms in ancient magma and provides insights into the early stages of Earth’s formation as well as the potential conditions of super-Earth exoplanets.
Platinum and gold are common, if expensive, in watches, necklaces, and rings. There’s also platinum in our electronic devices, rhodium in catalytic converters, and palladium in dental crowns. Most of us don’t realize how incredible it is that these rare metals are here at all, let alone in such quantities.
Gold, platinum, palladium, rhodium, iridium, osmium, rhenium, and ruthenium, those elements that came to Earth through impacts from giant asteroids and protoplanets, all bind easily to iron. But instead of sinking to our planet’s iron-rich core, they remained relatively near the surface, in the mantle. A very lucky, but also confusing phenomenon.
Two scientists, Jun Korenaga and Simone Marchi, carried out simulations to try and replicate what happened after these ancient collisions. They think they have solved the mystery.
As the huge space rocks smashed into our young planet, the huge impact created an ocean of molten magma in the crust and upper mantle. This ocean trapped the metals. The metals initially started sinking, then hit a partly molten transition layer.
At this point, the sinking slowed and allowed the lower mantle time to solidify completely before the precious metals reached it. Rather than continuing down to the core, they became trapped in the mantle. Over billions of years, thermal currents from the Earth’s core have moved the valuable metals closer to the surface.
The delivery of precious metals into those realms within our reach is still ongoing, according to the new study. Two sections of the deep mantle, one below Africa and the other below the Pacific Ocean, remain rich in precious metals. They are the leftovers of the transient zone. During earthquakes, the shock waves move more slowly through these sections of the mantle, showing their position.
Next, the researchers want to reenact their simulation, to see if early Mars and Venus followed the same pattern.
Geologists have long been intrigued by a missing piece of Earth’s history – a lost continent called Argoland. Around 155 million years ago, a 5,000-kilometer chunk broke off of western Australia and began its solitary drift.
The void that was left behind is marked by a basin deep below the ocean known as the Argo Abyssal Plain. But, where did Argoland actually go?
A new study from Utrecht University reveals that while Argoland might not exist as a singular mass today, it has not vanished entirely. The journey of Argoland
Scientists have relied on the underwater Argo Abyssal Plain as evidence of Argoland’s past existence. The seabed structure suggests that the detached continent drifted northwestward, potentially towards present-day Southeast Asia.
But the mystery deepens, as the vast continent-sized footprint of Argoland is conspicuously absent beneath Southeast Asian islands. Instead, these islands sit atop smaller continental fragments, encircled by significantly older oceanic basins.
This led geologists to dive deeper into the fate of Argoland. They found that the lost continent hasn’t completely disappeared – it has simply shattered into fragments. Earth’s hidden tales
Earth’s crust varies in weight, comprising heavier oceanic sections and lighter continental chunks. Interestingly, these lighter portions might be lurking below sea level, much like Greater Adria, another lost continent.
Greater Adria’s journey ended when it submerged into the Earth’s mantle, leaving its top layer behind, which later morphed into the mountains of Southern Europe. Argoland, by contrast, left no evidence in the form of folded rocks. Study significance
Utrecht University geologist Douwe van Hinsbergen emphasized the significance of tracing these continents.
“If continents can dive into the mantle and disappear entirely, without leaving a geological trace at the Earth’s surface, then we wouldn’t have much of an idea of what the Earth could have looked in the geological past. It would be almost impossible to create reliable reconstructions of former supercontinents and the Earth’s geography in foregone eras,” said van Hinsbergen.
“Those reconstructions are vital for our understanding of processes like the evolution of biodiversity and climate, or for finding raw materials. And at a more fundamental level: for understanding how mountains are formed or for working out the driving forces behind plate tectonics; two phenomena that are closely related.” Islands of information
Van Hinsbergen and his colleague Eldert Advokaat were curious about what the geology of Southeast Asia may reveal about Argoland.
“But we were literally dealing with islands of information, which is why our research took so long. We spent seven years putting the puzzle together,” said Advokaat.
“The situation in Southeast Asia is very different from places like Africa and South America, where a continent broke neatly into two pieces. Argoland splintered into many different shards. That obstructed our view of the continent’s journey.”
Fragmented continent
But then, Advokaat realized that these fragments converged at their current locations simultaneously, painting a once cohesive picture. Today, the remnants of Argoland can be found beneath the jungles of Indonesia and Myanmar.
This fragmentation was characteristic. Argoland was never a single, solid landmass. Instead, it was an ‘Argopelago,’ a collection of microcontinental chunks interspersed with older oceanic basins. This aspect aligns with other known entities like Greater Adria and Zeelandia.
An evolving planet
The investigation by Advokaat and Van Hinsbergen seamlessly links the geological systems between the Himalayas and the Philippines. Their explorations unravel why Argoland fragmented so intensely.
Around 215 million years ago, the continent underwent rapid fracturing, breaking into slender splinters. This theory was further supported through field studies on islands such as Sumatra, Borneo, and Timor.
The story of Argoland is not one of complete disappearance but of transformation. As the world continues to evolve, this lost continent serves as a compelling reminder of the ever-shifting nature of our planet.
During the Early-Middle Devonian, Gondwana was a warm, flooded landmass at the South Pole, home to the now-extinct Malvinoxhosan biota. New research has revealed these species’ decline correlated with sea-level and temperature changes. Their extinction, likely due to disrupted ocean barriers and an influx of warm-water species, led to an irreversible collapse of polar ecosystems. Similar patterns have been observed in South America, underscoring the lasting sensitivity of polar regions to environmental shifts.
During the Early-Middle Devonian period, a large landmass called Gondwana—which included parts of today’s Africa, South America, and Antarctica—was located near the South Pole. Contrary to the frosty environment we see today, the climate was warmer, and elevated sea levels submerged much of its terrain.
THE MALVINOXHOSAN BIOTA MYSTERY
The Malvinoxhosan biota were a group of marine animals that thrived in cooler waters. They included various types of shellfish, many of which are now extinct. “The origin and disappearance of these animals have remained an enigma for nearly two centuries until now,” says Dr. Penn-Clarke.
The researchers collected and analyzed a vast amount of fossil data. They used advanced data analysis techniques to sort through layers of ancient rock based on the types of fossils found in them. Imagine it like sorting through layers of a cake, each with different ingredients.
Simplified diagram showing the relationship between changes in sea-level and environment with biodiversity through time in South Africa during the Early-Middle Devonian. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences
They then identified at least 7 to 8 distinct layers, each showing fewer and fewer types of marine animals over time. These findings were then compared with how the environment and sea levels have changed, as well as with global temperature records from that ancient period. They found that these marine animals went through several phases of declining numbers of different species, which correlated with changes in sea levels and climate. It was a difficult process.
“This research is around 12-15 years in the making, and it wasn’t an easy journey,” shares Dr. Penn-Clarke. “I was only able to overcome all the different challenges through dogged persistence and perseverance.”
THEORIES ON MARINE LIFE ADAPTATION
Their research suggests that the Malvinoxhosan biota survived during a long period of global cooling. Dr. Penn-Clarke elaborates, “We think that cooler conditions allowed for the creation of circumpolar thermal barriers—essentially, ocean currents near the poles—that isolated these animals and led to their specialization.”
As the climate warmed up again, these animals disappeared. They were replaced by more generalist marine species that are well-adapted to warmer waters. Shifts in sea levels during the Early-Middle Devonian period probably disrupted natural ocean barriers that had kept waters cooler at the South Pole.
Inset images are of common invertebrate fossils found in South Africa. Clockwise from left: Brachiopod shell bed of Australospirifer and Australocoelia, the trilobite Eldredgeia, brachiopod shells of Rhipidothyris, an ophiuroid bed. At centre is an enrolled trilobite assigned to Burmiesteria. Image credits: Geographic reconstruction after Penn-Clarke and Harper (2023), fossil photographs by Cameron Penn-Clarke and John Almond. Credit: GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences
This allowed warmer waters from regions closer to the equator to flow in, setting the stage for marine animals that thrive in warmer conditions to move into these areas. As a result, these warm-water species gradually took over, leading to the decline and eventual disappearance of the specialized, cool-water Malvinoxhosan marine animals.
IMPACT ON POLAR ECOSYSTEMS
The extinction of the Malvinoxhosan biota led to a complete collapse in polar ecosystems, as biodiversity in these regions never recovered.
“This suggests a complete collapse in the functioning of polar environments and ecosystems to the point that they could never recover,” Dr. Penn-Clarke adds.
He likens this research to playing a game of Clue.
“It’s a 390-million-year-old murder mystery. We now know that the combined effects of changes in sea level and temperature were the most likely ‘smoking gun’ behind this extinction event,” he notes. It is still unknown if this extinction event can be correlated with known extinction events at the same time elsewhere during the Early-Middle Devonian as researchers simply do not have any real good age inferences. The mystery deepens further, and it is far from over.
Interestingly, similar declines in biodiversity controlled by sea-level changes have been observed in South America. This points to a broader pattern of environmental change affecting the South Polar region during this period and underscores the vulnerability of polar ecosystems, even in the past.
“This research is important when we consider the biodiversity crisis we are facing in the present day,” says Dr. Penn-Clarke. “It demonstrates the sensitivity of polar environments and ecosystems to changes in sea level and temperature. Any changes that occur are, unfortunately, permanent.” Reference: “The rise and fall of the Malvinoxhosan (Malvinokaffric) bioregion in South Africa: Evidence for Early-Middle Devonian biocrises at the South Pole” by Cameron R. Penn-Clarke and David A.T. Harper, 13 October 2023, Earth-Science Reviews. DOI: 10.1016/j.earscirev.2023.104595
The study was funded by the GENUS: DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence in Palaeosciences, the National Research Foundation, and the Leverhulme Trust.
Biggest ever supercomputer simulation to investigate universe’s evolution Nina Massey, PA Science Correspondent Mon, 23 October 2023
Astronomers have carried out the biggest ever computer simulations, from the Big Bang to the present day, to investigate how the universe evolved.
The project, dubbed Flamingo, calculated the evolution of all components of the universe – ordinary matter, dark matter and dark energy – according to the laws of physics.
As the simulations progress, virtual galaxies and galaxy clusters emerge in detail.
Facilities such as the Euclid Space Telescope recently launched by the European Space Agency (ESA) and Nasa’s James Webb Space Telescope collect data on galaxies, quasars and stars.
Researchers hope the simulations will allow them to compare the virtual universe with observations of the real thing being captured by new high-powered telescopes.
This could help scientists understand if the standard model of cosmology – used to explain the evolution of the universe – is a good description of reality.
Flamingo research collaborator Professor Carlos Frenk, Ogden Professor of Fundamental Physics, at the Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, said: “Cosmology is at a crossroads.
“We have amazing new data from powerful telescopes some of which do not, at first sight, conform to our theoretical expectations.
“Either the standard model of cosmology is flawed or there are subtle biases in the observational data.
“Our super precise simulations of the universe should be able to tell us the answer.”
Past simulations, which have been compared to observations of the universe, have focused on cold dark matter – believed to be a key component of the structure of the cosmos.
However, astronomers now say that the effect of ordinary matter, which makes up only 16% of all matter in the universe, and neutrinos, tiny particles that rarely interact with normal matter, also need to be taken into account when trying to understand the universe’s evolution.
Principal investigator Professor Joop Schaye, of Leiden University, said: “Although the dark matter dominates gravity, the contribution of ordinary matter can no longer be neglected since that contribution could be similar to the deviations between the models and the observations.”
Researchers ran simulations at a powerful supercomputer in Durham over the past two years.
The simulations took more than 50 million processor hours on the Cosmology Machine (COSMA 8) supercomputer, hosted by the Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, on behalf of the UK’s DiRAC High-Performance Computing facility.
In order to make the simulations possible, the researchers developed a new code, called SWIFT, which distributes the computational work over thousands of central processing units (CPUs, sometimes as many as 65,000).
Flamingo is a project of the Virgo Consortium for cosmological supercomputer simulations. The acronym stands for full-hydro large-scale structure simulations with all-sky mapping for the interpretation of next generation observations.
Funding for the project came from the European Research Council, the UK’s Science and Technology Facilities Council, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research and the Swiss National Science Foundation.
The research is published in the journal Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society.
The aim is to compare the virtual universe with what we know of the real thing, including new information being captured by high-powered telescopes – which sometimes does not quite match what is expected.
This could help scientists understand if the current theory of how the universe evolved – known as the Standard Model of Cosmology – is a good description of reality.
The project, dubbed Flamingo, calculated the evolution of all components of the universe – ordinary matter, dark matter and dark energy – according to the laws of physics.
As the simulations progress, virtual galaxies and galaxy clusters emerge in detail.
Facilities such as the Euclid Space Telescope, recently launched by the European Space Agency (ESA), and Nasa’s James Webb Space Telescope collect data on galaxies, quasars and stars.
‘Cosmology is at a crossroads,’ said Flamingo research collaborator Professor Carlos Frenk, from Durham University.
‘We have amazing new data from powerful telescopes some of which do not, at first sight, conform to our theoretical expectations.
‘Either the standard model of cosmology is flawed or there are subtle biases in the observational data.
‘Our super precise simulations of the universe should be able to tell us the answer.’
Past simulations, which have been compared to observations of the universe, have focused on cold dark matter – believed to be a key component of the structure of the cosmos.
However, astronomers now say that the effect of ordinary matter, which makes up only 16% of all matter in the universe – including the Earth and everyone on it – and neutrinos, tiny particles that rarely interact with normal matter, also need to be taken into account when trying to understand the universe’s evolution.
Researchers have been running simulations at a powerful supercomputer in Durham over the past two years.
The simulations took more than 50 million processor hours on the Cosmology Machine (COSMA 8) supercomputer, hosted by the Institute for Computational Cosmology, Durham University, on behalf of the UK’s DiRAC High-Performance Computing facility.
Flamingo is a project of the Virgo Consortium for cosmological supercomputer simulations. The acronym stands for full-hydro large-scale structure simulations with all-sky mapping for the interpretation of next generation observations.
Funding for the project came from the European Research Council, the UK’s Science and Technology Facilities Council, the Netherlands Organisation for Scientific Research and the Swiss National Science Foundation.
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Tiny crystals unravel greatest mystery of the Moon
October 23, 2023
Was the Moon formed when a young Earth was hit by another planet?
(Picture: Getty/Science Photo Libra)
Crystals collected by Apollo astronauts have proved the Moon is much older than thought – and may have even helped answer the biggest lunar mystery.
How did the Moon get here?
The Moon, Earth’s natural satellite, determines the length of an Earth day and gives us tides. But no one is quite sure where it came from.
Giant-impact theory, the most widely-accepted idea, suggests that in its early years Earth was hit by another small planet about the size of Mars. Some call this planet Theia. The massive amount of debris created by the collision is believed to have melted together and reformed into the Moon.
Capture theory suggests the Moon was a ‘wandering body’, such as an asteroid, that got a little too close to Earth and was trapped by its gravity, while the ‘accretion hypothesis’, by far the least exciting, argues it was simply created at the same time as the Earth.
Fission theory, the wildest idea, suggests at one point Earth was spinning so fast that some bits flew off, forming the Moon.
Geologist-Astronaut Harrison Schmitt digs up lunar crystals in 1972
(Picture: Nasa/SWNS)
However, analysis of crystals brought back from the lunar surface by the last Apollo mission to the Moon in 1972 not only supports the giant-impact theory, but have helped pinpoint when the massive collision occurred.
If Theia hit Earth, the energy of the impact would have melted the rock and debris that went on to form the Moon’s surface.
‘When the surface was molten like that, zircon crystals couldn’t form and survive,’ said senior author Professor Philipp Heck, senior director at Chicago’s Field Museum of Natural History.
‘So any crystals on the Moon’s surface must have formed after this lunar magma ocean cooled. Otherwise, they would have been melted and their chemical signatures would be erased.’
Many mysteries about the Moon still remain (Picture: Getty/500px)
This means that if the team could reveal the age of the crystals, they could reveal the point at which the Moon cooled and became fully formed.
To do this, the team used radiometric dating, which involves counting the number of uranium and lead atoms found in the crystals. Over a very specific time, uranium decays into lead, so by counting the ratio of uranium to lead in the crystals, they can be aged precisely.
‘Radiometric dating works a little bit like an hourglass,’ said Professor Heck. ‘In an hourglass, sand flows from one glass bulb to another, with the passage of time indicated by the accumulation of sand in the lower bulb.
‘Radiometric dating works similarly by counting the number of parent atoms [uranium] and the number of daughter atoms [lead] they have transformed to.
Lead author Jennika Greer using an atom probe to age the crystals (Picture: Dieter Isheim/SWNS)
‘The passage of time can then be calculated because the transformation rate is known.’
Using this ‘cosmic clock’, the team found the crystals were 4.46 billion years old – and therefore so is the Moon, making it 40 million years older than previous estimates.
‘It’s amazing being able to have proof that the rock you’re holding is the oldest bit of the Moon we’ve found so far,’ said lead author Jennika Greer. ‘It’s an anchor point for so many questions about the Earth. When you know how old something is, you can better understand what has happened to it in its history.’
Professor Heck added: ‘The Moon is an important partner in our planetary system – it stabilises the Earth’s rotational axis, it’s the reason there are 24 hours in a day, it’s the reason we have tides. Without the Moon, life on Earth would look different.
‘It’s a part of our natural system that we want to better understand, and our study provides a tiny puzzle piece in that whole picture.’
The study is published in the journal Geochemical Perspectives Letters.
IEA: Fossil Fuel Demand to Peak by 2030; But Demand ‘Far Too High’ to Keep 1.5°C Alive
“The transition to clean energy is happening worldwide and it’s unstoppable,” said IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) has projected that global demand for oil, coal, and gas will peak by 2030, but demand for fossil fuels before and after that will still remain “far too high” to keep the Paris Agreement Target of 1.5°C average global warming within reach.
On the brighter side, the transition to clean energy is happening worldwide and is “unstoppable”, according to the IEA World Energy Outlook report, released on Tuesday. It credits the record growth of key clean energy technologies, such as solar PV and electric cars, for this shift.
“It’s not a question of ‘if’, it’s just a matter of ‘how soon’ – and the sooner the better for all of us,” said IEA Executive Director Fatih Birol, at the launch of the report. “Taking into account the ongoing strains and volatility in traditional energy markets today, claims that oil and gas represent safe or secure choices for the world’s energy and climate future look weaker than ever.”
The IEA report predicts that a continuing surge in renewable technologies will underpin green transformation of the global economy. By 2030, renewable energies such as solar, wind, and hydropower could provide nearly 50% of the global electricity mix, up from around 30% today, the report states. The number of electric cars on roads worldwide is projected to increase 10-fold.
“Peak” does not mean “decline”
oil and gas demand will remain constant until at least 2050, as consumption increases in developing economies and decreases in advanced economies
At the same time, IEA report underlines that a “peak” in demand for the first time in 150 years does not mean “decline”. On the contrary, oil and natural gas consumption is forecast to remain close to ‘peak’ levels until 2050.
The IEA projects oil and gas demand will be buoyed by increases in consumption in developing economies which will offset expected decreases in advanced economies.
Conversely, demand for coal – the dirtiest fossil fuel of which 55% is already sold at below market rates globally – will drop off sharply after 2030, the report finds.
The net result, warns the IEA, is that governments still are not doing enough to support the transition to clean energy. While investments in fossil fuels will remain “essential” to keep the global energy mix balanced, investments in fossil fuels are currently too high, the IEA said. This is reflected in the record-high levels of global fossil fuels subsidies, which reached $7 trillion in 2020.
“As things stand, demand for fossil fuels is set to remain far too high to keep within reach the Paris Agreement goal of limiting the rise in average global temperatures to 1.5°C,” the report said. “This risks not only worsening climate impacts after a year of record-breaking heat, but also undermining the security of the energy system, which was built for a cooler world with less extreme weather events.”
Projections at the mercy of political shifts on green energy
Three times as much investment will go into new offshore wind projects than into new coal- and gas-fired power plants by 2030, the IEA projects.
The IEA assessment, based on current policies being implemented presently by governments and could change – for better or for worse – depending on whether governments backtrack or double down on major climate pledges, the report also noted.
For instance, UK Prime Minister Rishi Sunak recently backtracked on some of his country’s net-zero pledges, delaying from 2030-2035 the target date for banning petrol and diesel car sales, while pushing ahead with plans to “max out” the UK’s fossil fuel reserves. And former US President Donald Trump has already signaled that should he be re-elected in 2024, he will try to repeal the Inflation Reduction Act, the largest package of green investment in US history.
China, the world’s largest consumer of fossil fuels, is also a key player. The country accounts for one-half the world’s coal use and through its investments and development strategies, Beijing has driven two-thirds of the growth in global oil demand over the past decade. At the same time, China’s commitment to harnessing its green energy dominance to reshape its dependence on fossil fuels is essential to realization of IEA projections of a 2030 peak in fossil fuel consumption, the IEA report stresses.
The fossil fuel industry has different ideas
Oil cartel OPEC supplies over half of the world’s oil and controls over 80$ of proven oil reserves.
The IEA assessment is in stark contrast to the views of the fossil fuel industry, which has long insisted that oil and gas will continue to play a dominant role in the global energy mix. The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), the global oil cartel that supplies 51% of the world’s oil and controls 81% of proven oil reserves, said in its annual report earlier this month that it expects oil demand to increase by 17% by 2045.
The OPEC report called for expectations of what green energy can deliver to be more “pragmatic and realistic”, reflecting language also used by the United Arab Emirates presidency ahead of the upcoming UN Climate Conference (COP28) in Dubai, 30 November – 13 December.
OPEC Secretary General and Kuwaiti oil executive Haitham Al Ghais wrote in the foreword of the OPEC report: “Calls to stop investments in new oil projects are misguided and could lead to energy and economic chaos.”
The bullish projections of OPEC are shared by American fossil fuel giants ExxonMobil and Chevron, who both announced plans to buy smaller shale producers in the United States a combined total of over $100 billion.
The International Energy Agency (IEA) has a mixed track record in forecasting fossil fuel demand. In 2016, the agency incorrectly predicted that China’s coal demand had peaked. But in previous reports, it also underestimated the rapid growth of renewable energy sources such as solar power.
