It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Monday, November 25, 2024
Emory researchers launch investigation into why air pollution impacts Alzheimer’s disease risk
Emory University
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Rollins researchers Anke Huels, PhD and Donghai Liang, PhD are studying why and how specific toxic components in air pollution increase the risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias.
Previous studies have linked Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias to air pollution—specifically exposure to fine particulate matter <2.5 micrometers (PM2.5), a common class of particles and gases—but it is not known how specific concentrations of this mixture of toxins impact the brain.
For the first time, the study is measuring the components of PM2.5 particles in the blood and cerebral spinal fluid of a diverse range of study participants from the Goizueta Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, including both cognitively healthy adults and adults with a previous dementia diagnosis. They will also measure PM2.5 in brain tissue samples from the center’s brain bank.
“Changes in the early biomarkers of cognitive function can be seen more than a decade before someone develops Alzheimer’s disease,” says Anke Huels, PhD, assistant professor of epidemiology and principal investigator of the two NIH awards. “By measuring the biological response to air pollution, we have a really unique opportunity to find out what is causing the effects of PM2.5on Alzheimer’s disease risk. This could give us a better understanding of why some people develop Alzheimer’s disease and others do not, but also identify potential intervention and prevention strategies to make a difference on a policy level.”
As part of this effort, the researchers are developing improved air pollution models to measure PM2.5components in the Atlanta area and assign air pollution estimates to the study participants based on their address. They are conducting metabolomics, proteomics, epigenomics, and genomics analyses to better understand the biological response to air pollution.
“We are using cutting-edge methods to unravel the thousands of environmental chemicals that exist in PM2.5 and assess their individual and joint effects on our brain health,” says Donghai Liang, PhD, associate professor of environmental health and principal investigator of the two NIH awards. “And in the future, other scientists will have a much better understanding of the toxic components of PM2.5that are responsible for an increased risk of developing Alzheimer’s disease.”
Researchers from Emory University recently received two separate grants, totaling $15 million, from the National Institutes of Health (NIH) to lead a first-of-its-kind, multifaceted study into why specific types of air pollution increase the risk of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias.
Credit
Emory University
Study of paper wasps shows that body size is larger in habitats nearer the equator
An analysis of 429 specimens belonging to 39 species representative of the diversity of Polistes in the Americas confirmed the inverse of Bergmann’s rule by pointing to larger body size for species occurring in or near the tropics.
Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo
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Variation in body size of paper wasps (Polistes) analyzed in the study. Each individual in the image represents a different species
A study of the correlation between environmental variables such as latitude and body size in paper wasps (genus Polistes) by a group of Brazilian researchers concludes that the nearer the habitat of a species to the equator, the larger its body size. The genus is widely distributed around the world and serves as a model for sociobiological and ecological studies.
An article on the study is published in the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. The findings refute for these insects a nineteenth-century theory that predicts larger body size at higher latitudes or in colder regions of the planet.
“If you examine wasp collections worldwide, you notice that body size varies considerably from one species to another. We analyzed many specimens from a representative number of species and concluded that latitude is the key determinant of these differences,” said André Rodrigues de Souza, first author of the article and a researcher at the University of São Paulo’s Ribeirão Preto School of Philosophy, Science and Letters (FFCLRP-USP) with a Young Investigator Grant from FAPESP.
The researchers found that species living in warmer, less seasonal habitats closer to the equator tend to be larger than species living at higher latitudes, where temperatures are lower. This is the opposite of what is predicted by Bergmann’s rule.
Named for German biologist Carl Bergmann, who proposed it in 1847, the rule states that species with larger body sizes are found at high latitudes or in cold environments. A large body is an advantage for survival in a cold habitat: with less surface area in proportion to volume, they radiate less heat and can maintain a stable body temperature.
The article argues for the converse Bergmann’s rule, a twentieth-century theory proposed by scientists who observed that many ectothermic organisms inhabiting warmer regions tend to have larger body sizes than those in colder habitats. Ectotherms rely primarily on the external environment to regulate body temperature.
“A possible explanation for the converse Bergmann’s rule in this case is that at high latitudes and in more seasonal environments with low temperatures, the foraging period for wasps is very short and they become smaller adults as a result. Individuals that develop faster have an advantage, but at the cost of a smaller body size,” Souza said.
In temperate regions the favorable season for wasps lasts three to four months, while in the tropics it lasts about nine months, allowing more time for their young to forage and grow.
Collections
The researchers analyzed 429 well-preserved adult Polistes wasps belonging to species that occur throughout the Americas from Canada to Argentina. The specimens were sent to Brazil from museum collections in different countries or analyzed at the institutions holding the collections abroad. In all, 37 species were represented by females and 28 also by males; two were represented only by males, giving a total of 39 species investigated. The analysis included the use of statistical tools showing a direct correlation between latitude and body size.
Polistes species inhabiting the Americas were chosen because the phylogeny of this group on the continent is well-resolved: all species descend from the same ancestor, which is not known to be the case in other regions of the planet. Moreover, the diversity of the genus is greatest in the Americas, with around 90 species. The sample was therefore considered sufficient to validate the theory that body size is significantly influenced by environmental conditions.
A previous study by Souza and other collaborators showed that regulation of body temperature in paper wasps is not the main determinant of body size, as predicted by Bergmann’s rule. The authors conclude that darker insects have an advantage in colder environments because they can heat faster than lighter ones.
“Studies like these contribute to a broader picture of the evolution of paper wasps, helping us understand their diversity in tropical regions better and emphasizing the importance of conserving their habitats,” Souza said.
Furthermore, he added, the studies highlight the importance of preserving entomological collections, which provide material for ongoing research on the many species of paper wasps and the relationships among them.
The authors of the latest study also include researchers at the Federal University of the Minas Triangle (UFTM), the Federal University of Viçosa (UFV), and the National Institute of Amazon Research (INPA).
About São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP)
The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) is a public institution with the mission of supporting scientific research in all fields of knowledge by awarding scholarships, fellowships and grants to investigators linked with higher education and research institutions in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. FAPESP is aware that the very best research can only be done by working with the best researchers internationally. Therefore, it has established partnerships with funding agencies, higher education, private companies, and research organizations in other countries known for the quality of their research and has been encouraging scientists funded by its grants to further develop their international collaboration. You can learn more about FAPESP at www.fapesp.br/en and visit FAPESP news agency at www.agencia.fapesp.br/en to keep updated with the latest scientific breakthroughs FAPESP helps achieve through its many programs, awards and research centers. You may also subscribe to FAPESP news agency at http://agencia.fapesp.br/subscribe.
Interspecific variation in paper wasp body size supports the converse Bergmann’s rule
NJIT biologist among $10M XPRIZE competition winners for rainforest biodiversity sampling tech
NJIT's Eric Fortune and team “Limelight Rainforest” are grand prize winners of the global XPRIZE Rainforest Competition with their drone-delivered Limelight device, capable of identifying thousands of rainforest species in mere hours.
New Jersey Institute of Technology
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Limelight uses telemetry, satellite communications and advanced AI to interpret the hundreds of thousands of images, recordings and samples collected by the platform’s advanced microphones, cameras and capture systems.
NJIT biologist Eric Fortune and a team of scientists called “Limelight Rainforest” have won the five-year XPRIZE Rainforest Competition, securing half of the competition's $10 million prize purse.
The team's dramatic victory was announced Nov. 15 at the G20 Social Summit in Rio de Janeiro, the culmination of a global competition that began in 2019 when the nonprofit XPRIZE Foundation challenged innovators around the world to “develop technology to capture the true biological diversity of rainforests…and show the value of protecting the natural resources within them.”
Ultimately, Limelight Rainforest and its biodiversity sampling technology, “Limelight”, outshined the competition — topping an initial field of 300 teams from 70 countries, including six finalists that competed in Amazonas in Manaus, Brazil this past July.
“It's amazing. Being part of this crazy adventure over three years has been an enormous learning experience with so many twists and turns. It’s something I'll never forget," said Fortune, a team leader who developed sensor and control systems used in the Limelight data collection platform.
"The real reward is that this work can have a lasting impact on these vital ecosystems and the communities that depend on them. It’s what drew us to this competition in the first place.”
Originally started by Colorado Mesa University biology professor Thomas Walla, Limelight Rainforest forged its drone-based sampling technology under the unique rules of the competition's various stages held in rainforests around the world — teams have been challenged to deploy technologies to remotely survey as much biodiversity as possible across 100 hectares of forest accurately, and in under 24 hours.
The Limelight team of more than 50 engineers, biologists and indigenous scientists developed their system to collect a flurry of data on species that included ultrasound produced by bats and traces of DNA left by primates moving through the forest.
The latest Limelight uses telemetry, satellite communications and advanced AI to interpret the hundreds of thousands of images, recordings and samples collected by the platform’s advanced microphones, cameras and capture systems. The 24-hour sampling period was followed by a 48-hour sprint to produce a final report of species, their movements and deep insights into the forest's biodiversity.
Uncovering Life in the Amazon
On the heels of the semifinals hosted in Singapore, the XPRIZE Rainforest Competition finals were fittingly held in the Amazon — the most biodiverse place on Earth, estimated to be home to over 10% of the known species in the world.
“We were taken by boat to this remote location on the shores of the Rio Negro where they had a hut for us to spend the next 24 hours,” Fortune said. “Our team has a lot of experience in the Amazon, so we were confident, but we didn’t expect it to go so smoothly.
“We sent out 10 Limelight rafts with our drones once they put us on the clock, and from there everything just worked.”
Upon deployment, the team's devices — each equipped with five light trap cameras — lured and imaged an astonishing 250,000 insects that were classified in mere hours.
The Limelight’s new water sampling tool, deployed using custom robotic systems, filtered 45 liters of water from remote streams in narrow canopy gaps to catalog the vast biodiversity of the forest’s aquatic ecosystem. It yielded over 27 million environmental DNA (eDNA) sequencing reads on location.
The team also pioneered a new “Nature Node” acoustic system, capable of identifying bird and other tree-dwelling species by their vocalizations with unprecedented precision.
“For 40 years, people have been trying to track animals based solely on their vocalizations. It was a dream of mine as a grad student and our team made it happen,” Fortune noted.
One of Limelight’s biggest standout features in the finals was the accuracy of their AI in identifying the vast array of forest life.
For that, the team turned to the Quechua and Waorani Indigenous groups native to the rainforests of Ecuador, who reviewed and validated thousands upon thousands of sounds and images of rainforest species. Part of this effort was funded by a Kickstarter campaign to train their AI’s species identification capabilities.
“Many of our team members have been conducting research in Ecuador and building relationships with the Quechua and Waorani groups for over 20 years,” said Fortune. "Our Indigenous team members are the true masters of this knowledge. They were vital in helping confirm the identifications of these species … in many ways the team was completely reliant on their expertise.
“We were certain our AI was trained well because we had the world's top experts validating the data that we fed into the AI.”
Upon its XPRIZE success, the team is already planning to scale up Limelight production. Fortune is helping lead development of the first generation of Limelight devices for real-world use, partnering with NGOs, Indigenous communities and other organizations invested in rainforest conservation.
The experience is one he will not soon forget, but Fortune says the team’s work toward rainforest conservation has only just begun.
“We're already identifying projects in South America and Southeast Asia where we could have an impact, redesigning our systems for these real-world needs,” said Fortune. “Once these devices start to be deployed, we will make enormous discoveries and uncover so many hidden organisms unique to these rainforests. It could change how we value and protect them.”
forest forged its drone-based sampling technology under the unique rules of the competition's various stages held in rainforests around the world — teams have been challenged to deploy technologies to remotely survey as much biodiversity as possible across 100 hectares of forest accurately, and in under 24 hours.
Credit
Limelight Rainforest
Florida Museum curator helps team score 1st-place and $5 million in international biodiversity competition
Florida Museum of Natural History
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A team of scientists, robotics engineers and naturalists has won first place and $5 million in an international biodiversity competition.
Robert Guralnick, curator of bioinformatics at the Florida Museum of Natural History, is a member of an international team that won first place in the five-year XPRIZE Rainforest competition. The winners were announced Friday, Nov. 15 at a summit held in Rio de Janeiro. More than $7 million was awarded to the top-ranked teams, with $5 million going to the first-place winner.
XPRIZE is a non-profit, solutions-driven organization that has hosted large-scale competitions to solve humanity’s greatest challenges since it was established in 1994. The XPRIZE Rainforest competition kicked off in 2019, hosting 300 teams across 70 countries. The collective goal of each participant was the acceleration of technological innovation to improve the speed and precision of biodiversity surveys in support of global conservation efforts.
In the final stage of the competition, six finalist teams had 24 hours to deploy their technologies, remotely survey a 100-hectare test plot of tropical rainforest without physically entering the test area, and produce a biodiversity analysis report within 48 hours following the deployment. To win the competition’s grand prize, teams were also tasked with demonstrating scalability to effectively disrupt the often lengthy, laborious and resource-intensive process of data collection and analysis.
“It was such a massive collaborative effort,” Guralnick said. “I have never been involved in such a high-pressure situation, where one team does so much work to produce high-quality data, analytics and insights.”
Guralnick is a member of the Limelight Rainforest team, whose solution to the challenge was to create a monitoring device equipped with lights, audio recorders, cameras, insect traps and collection reservoirs. During the competition, each of ten Limelight devices was transported by drone and deposited in the forest canopy. At sundown, the lights were activated, creating clear beacons that attracted insects within the 100-hectare plot.
This strategy got them through the semifinals hosted last year in Singapore. The team made several tweaks and improvements to the collection apparatus ahead of the finals competition that took place in Amazonas, Brazil this April. The alterations enabled them to create an even more detailed snapshot of the world’s most biodiverse ecosystem.
Team members were brought on at various stages of the competition. Florida Museum researchers Raphael LaFrance and Nick Gardner also joined the Rainforest Limelight ranks, as did former University of Florida Ph.D. student Caitlin Campbell. Niyomi House, a postdoctoral associate at the Florida Museum, and Julie Allen, former Florida Museum Ph.D. student and current professor of biology at Virginia Tech, played equally indispensable roles.
During finals, the onboard camera systems photographed and automatically classified 250,000 insects in just 24 hours. Team members also used canopy mapping software to identify thousands of trees and piloted drones to collect water samples from the forest floor. Because organisms are constantly shedding genetic material into their environment, team members running an onsite genetic lab were able to sequence isolated strands of DNA suspended in the water samples and use it to identify many of the organisms that lived nearby.
The team used the Limelights’ audio recorders to automatically identify birds, using a birdsong database created in partnership with Indigenous bird guides in Ecuador.
Though the express goal was to measure as much biodiversity as possible, Guralnick said devices like the Limelight and others developed for the rainforest competition have the potential to go far beyond static inventories.
“One of the questions we want to answer is not so much what’s out there, but what services the forest is providing to animals,” he said. “For example, we can detect buzz feeding of bats in and around the site, which is an indication that it’s a high-quality area.”
By mapping the position of each monitoring device, the team could also triangulate the movement of birds and track bats as they searched for food.
The rainforest competition was developed to address the critical need for rapid biodiversity inventories in areas that remain poorly studied or are threatened by development. Devices like the Limelight will improve the accuracy of environmental assessments, make it easier to identify the ecosystem services provided within a plot of land and monitor ecosystem health in even the most remote areas.
“Our ability to deploy monitoring devices to explore the world is just in its infancy,” Guralnick said. “We’ve never before had the ability to get this type of dense, real-time, on-the-ground information on what’s happening in our ecosystems at this scale. When it comes to automated monitoring, we're learning to walk after crawling for a decade. I wonder what's going to happen when we can run.”
Visit the Limelight Rainforest’s website to learn more about the team and the technologies they’ve developed.
Despite federal warnings, kratom still readily available across US
Researchers find kratom available at 72% of tobacco specialty stores across U.S.
University of Mississippi
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A recent study published in the American Journal of Public Health shows that tobacco and vape shops across America are still selling kratom -- even in states where the substance is illegal.
Credit: Graphic by John McCustion/University of Mississippi Marketing and Communications.
OXFORD, Miss. – Nearly three-fourths of tobacco and vape stores in the United States sell an addictive, dangerous substance with connections to liver toxicity, seizures and death, according to a new study from the University of Mississippi.
In Mississippi, more than 30 counties and cities have restricted or banned the product. The state legislature has debated several bills restricting the sale of kratom since 2021 but has yet to pass any legislation on the product.
“This product, it’s being marketed as being a mood stabilizer and painkiller, but then we also have several warnings from federal agencies and people who have died from overdoses,” said Andrew Yockey, UM assistant professor of public health.
“That is the disconnect, right? There are people who think this is a fantastic product and mood stabilizer that can help people who are withdrawing from opioids, but it’s also linked to these poisonings and hospitalizations.
“So why are people using it? Because it’s so widely available. Ease of access is one of the biggest risk factors for substance use besides peer pressure.”
Matthew Rossheim, associate professor at the University of North Texas Health Science Center at Fort Worth, is leading the team of researchers on the project. He spoke with tellers and attendants at 520 tobacco and vape shops across the nation – 10 from each state and territory. He found that even in states where kratom is banned, many stores still sold it.
“I spent my nights and weekends for about three, four weeks making these calls and just asking,” Rossheim said. “What we found is that these products are widely available.”
“Kratom products are marketed or advertised as having various benefits from use, from therapeutic benefits to being stimulants or depressants, to pain relieving, to even being a substitute for opioids,” Rossheim said. “Because of the lack of scientific evidence, those are potentially deceptive claims.”
Kratom is not an FDA-approved drug, nor is it recognized as a supplement. That means there is little or no oversight in its production, Yockey said.
“One of the biggest health things that we're seeing is that these products are hitting the market without supervision,” he said. “And if there’s no supervision, do you really know what you’re putting in your system?”
Kratom Products Are Widely Available Throughout the United States
SLU study explores the pandemic’s impact on breastfeeding practices in historically marginalized communities
COVID-19 provided the elements for an organic experiment, researchers say
Saint Louis University
ST. LOUIS — A Saint Louis University study explored the impact of COVID-19 stay-at-home orders on breastfeeding practices in the U.S.
The study, recently published in the Maternal and Child Health Journal, provides critical insights into how pandemic-induced changes affected breastfeeding habits. Thirty-four percent of mothers said stay-at-home orders facilitated easier breastfeeding at home, stronger mother-child bonding, and extended breastfeeding duration for many women. However, the pandemic also presented significant barriers, including limited access to lactation support and heightened maternal stress.
Earlier studies on mothers' breastfeeding habits yielded samples of a majority of White, non-Hispanic, well-educated, partnered, and employed respondents. This study surveyed the breastfeeding practices of a large and diverse sample of U.S. mothers across various regions, income levels, and racial/ethnic backgrounds.
María José Romo-Palafox, Ph.D., assistant professor of nutrition and dietetics at SLU, is the paper’s senior author. Romo-Palafox is a registered dietitian and researcher focusing on maternal-child health in historically marginalized communities.
“As a Mexican immigrant, I am dedicated to addressing the systemic barriers that disproportionately affect breastfeeding and maternal health. Observing the pandemic's impact on breastfeeding illuminated the urgent need for holistic, supportive work policies,” she said. “I am passionate about contributing to solutions that support breastfeeding and provide mental health and financial stability resources for mothers, creating healthier outcomes for both mothers and children across diverse backgrounds.”
Breastfeeding is one of the best investments in a child’s health, laying a solid nutritional foundation early in life. The World Health Organization recommends exclusively breastfeeding infants up to six months of age; however, in the U.S., only 26% of infants met this recommendation in 2020.
Returning to work has emerged as one of the main barriers to exclusive and continued breastfeeding. Women attempting to continue breastfeeding by pumping at work often find it challenging to meet their goals due to incomplete support from their management and organization, such as the lack of a designated lactation space and limited time to pump.
While valuable, Romo-Palafox and her team argue that existing policies like the PUMP Act and Pregnant Workers Fairness Act may not adequately meet the needs of low-income, racially diverse mothers who often return to work early out of financial necessity. The COVID-19 stay-at-home orders provided a unique natural experiment where many women found that working from home allowed for more sustained breastfeeding and promoted stronger mother-infant bonding—this period highlighted that even with current policies, many mothers particularly those from historically marginalized backgrounds—require more comprehensive support beyond the lactation accommodation alone.
Romo-Palafox and her team propose policies that go beyond current mandates by ensuring flexibility in work location, especially for roles that typically require in-person attendance. Additionally, policies should include expanded financial stability and mental health resources alongside telehealth lactation services.
“For instance, offering telehealth options for lactation consultants through programs like WIC, which proved effective during the pandemic, is essential to maintain. Although many programs temporarily offered these flexible services, they have since reduced access, leaving gaps in support,” she said. “Reinstating and standardizing telehealth lactation services for breastfeeding mothers, particularly through WIC, would enhance breastfeeding success, reduce stress, and better address the unique challenges faced by low-income and diverse populations.”
Other authors include Valerie Graham, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Saint Louis University; Haley Pritz, Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Saint Louis University; and Zoe Henkes, Saint Louis University School of Medicine.
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About Saint Louis University
Founded in 1818, Saint Louis University is one of the nation’s oldest and most prestigious Catholic institutions. Rooted in Jesuit values and its pioneering history as the first university west of the Mississippi River, SLU offers more than 15,200 students a rigorous, transformative education of the whole person. At the core of the University’s diverse community of scholars is SLU’s service-focused mission, which challenges and prepares students to make the world a better, more just place.
Breastfeeding During COVID-19 Stay-at-Home Orders: Implications for Future Maternal Work Policies and Health Equity
Plant roots change their growth pattern during ‘puberty’
Research by Prof. Bert De Rybel’s team (VIB-UGent), in collaboration with the VIB Screening Core and Ghent University, uncovers how roots go through a puberty phase, which could have important implications for developing climate-resilient agriculture
Vlaams Instituut voor Biotechnologie
Ghent, November 15, 2024 – Understanding how roots grow can help us develop plants that, for example, are more resistant to drought. Research by Prof. Bert De Rybel’s team (VIB-UGent), in collaboration with the VIB Screening Core and Ghent University, uncovers how roots go through a puberty phase, which could have important implications for developing climate-resilient agriculture. Their work appears in Science.
Plant puberty
Plants, like all living organisms, transition through various developmental stages, starting as a seed, becoming a shoot, and eventually a full-grown, fertile plant. They even go through a sort of ‘puberty’ during which a young shoot changes its growth patterns, which is vital for survival and adaptation to the environment. By altering the direction in which cells divide, plants can grow more in width than in height, or vice versa.
But what happens below the ground? Do the roots go through puberty too?
Between the first and third week of development, roots undergo a lot of changes. Researchers from the team of Prof. Bert De Rybel (VIB-UGent Center for Plant Systems Biology) and the VIB Screening Core, together with the Department of Chemistry of the University of Ghent, now provide molecular details on 'root puberty’. Their findings highlight the crucial role of SQUAMOSA PROMOTER BINDING-LIKE 13 (SPL13) in regulating oriented cell divisions, a process essential for proper root growth and morphology.
"Our research provides molecular insights into the age-dependent changes occurring in the root during this crucial phase," says Prof. De Rybel. "We discovered that a change in gene expression of SPL transcription factors, particularly SPL13, is crucial for this transition by regulating the orientation of cell division."
Complexities of growth
The transition that results from SPL13 activity is characterized by distinct changes in the morphology and molecular profile of the roots, which are critical for the plant's overall development.
Dr. Dominique Audenaert, head of the VIB Screening Core (part of VIB Technologies), explains, “We provided advanced microscopy-based screening technology that allowed to screen for molecules that alter cell division orientation in cell cultures. By assessing the mode-of-action of the identified compounds, we could demonstrate that altering SPL13 production in the cells makes the root systems grow steeper and deeper.”
Changing expression levels of SPL13 even allowed the scientists to speed up or slow down root aging.
“Our research,” explains Prof. De Rybel, “not only presents a previously unknown fundamental mechanism of plant development, but it also opens new avenues for improved crop yields and plant resilience in changing environmental conditions.”
As the global population continues to grow, optimizing plant growth and development will be crucial for food security. The importance of SPL transcription factors in plant biology highlights their potential applications in agriculture through changing root growth patterns, which may make crops more resilient to drought, for example.
By revealing the previously hidden complexity of root development, this study also identifies a gap in current plant research. Most studies use root samples that are one week old, but it is now clear that roots go through significant changes in morphology and gene expression, which means the way we look at root growth in lab conditions will have to be reconsidered.
