UK Scientists make major breakthrough in developing practical quantum computers that can solve big challenges of our time

Universal of Sussex and Universal Quantum scientists have, for the first time, connected quantum microchips together, like a jigsaw puzzle, to make powerful quantum computers and with record breaking connection speed and accuracy

Peer-Reviewed Publication

UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX

 

IMAGE: GRAPHIC SHOWING TWO QUANTUM COMPUTER MODULES BEING ALIGNED SO THAT ATOMS CAN TRANSFER FROM ONE QUANTUM COMPUTER MICROCHIP TO ANOTHER view more 

CREDIT: UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX

Researchers from the University of Sussex and Universal Quantum have demonstrated for the first time that quantum bits (qubits) can directly transfer between quantum computer microchips and demonstrated this with record-breaking speed and accuracy.  This breakthrough resolves a major challenge in building quantum computers large and powerful enough to tackle complex problems that are of critical importance to society.

Today, quantum computers operate on the 100-qubit scale. Experts anticipate millions of qubits are required to solve important problems that are out of reach of today’s most powerful supercomputers [1, 2]. There is a global quantum race to develop quantum computers that can help in many important societal challenges from drug discovery to making fertilizer production more energy efficient and solving important problems in nearly every industry, ranging from aeronautics to the financial sector.

In the research paper, published today (from 10:00 GMT, Wednesday 8 February 2023) in Nature Communications, the scientists demonstrate how they have used a new and powerful technique, which they dub ‘UQ Connect’, to use electric field links to enable qubits to move from one quantum computing microchip module to another with unprecedented speed and precision. This allows chips to slot together like a jigsaw puzzle to make a more powerful quantum computer.

The University of Sussex and Universal Quantum team were successful in transporting the qubits with a 99.999993% success rate and a connection rate of 2424/s, both numbers are world records and orders of magnitude better than previous solutions.

Professor Winfried Hensinger, Professor of Quantum Technologies at the University of Sussex and Chief Scientist and Co-founder at Universal Quantum said: “As quantum computers grow, we will eventually be constrained by the size of the microchip, which limits the number of quantum bits such a chip can accommodate. As such, we knew a modular approach was key to make quantum computers powerful enough to solve step-changing industry problems. In demonstrating that we can connect two quantum computing chips – a bit like a jigsaw puzzle – and, crucially, that it works so well, we unlock the potential to scale-up by connecting hundreds or even thousands of quantum computing microchips.”

While linking the modules at world-record speed, the scientists also verified that the ‘strange’ quantum nature of the qubit remains untouched during transport, for example, that the qubit can be both 0 and 1 at the same time.

Dr Sebastian Weidt, CEO and Co-founder of Universal Quantum, and Senior Lecturer in Quantum Technologies at the University of Sussex said: “Our relentless focus is on providing people with a tool that will enable them to revolutionise their field of work. The Universal Quantum and University of Sussex teams have done something truly incredible here that will help make our vision a reality. These exciting results show the remarkable potential of Universal Quantum’s quantum computers to become powerful enough to unlock the many lifechanging applications of quantum computing.”

Universal Quantum has just been awarded €67 million from the German Aerospace Center (DLR) to build two quantum computers where they will deploy this technology as part of the contract. The University of Sussex spin-out was also recently named as one of the 2022 Institute of Physics award winners in the Business Start-up category.

Weidt added: “The DLR contract was likely one of the largest government quantum computing contracts ever handed out to a single company. This is a huge validation of our technology. Universal Quantum is now working hard to deploy this technology in our upcoming commercial machines.”

Dr Mariam Akhtar led the research during her time as Research Fellow at the University of Sussex and Quantum Advisor at Universal Quantum. She said: “The team has demonstrated fast and coherent ion transfer using quantum matter links. This experiment validates the unique architecture that Universal Quantum has been developing – providing an exciting route towards truly large-scale quantum computing.”

Professor Sasha Roseneil, Vice-Chancellor of the University of Sussex, said: “It’s fantastic to see that the inspired work of the University of Sussex and Universal Quantum physicists has resulted in this phenomenal breakthrough, taking us a significant step closer to a quantum computer that will be of real societal use. These computers are set to have boundless applications – from improving the development of medicines, creating new materials, to maybe even unlocking solutions to the climate crisis. The University of Sussex is investing significantly in quantum computing to support our bold ambition to host the world’s most powerful quantum computers and create change that has the potential to positively impact so many people across the world. And with teams spanning the spectrum of quantum computing and technology research, the University of Sussex has both a breadth and a depth of expertise in this. We are still growing our research and teaching in this area, with plans for new teaching programmes, and new appointments.”

Professor Keith Jones, Interim Provost and Pro-Vice Chancellor for Research and Enterprise at the University of Sussex, said of the development: “This is a very exciting finding from our University of Sussex physicists and Universal Quantum. It proves the value and dynamism of this University of Sussex spin-out company, whose work is grounded in rigorous and world-leading academic research. Quantum computers will be pivotal in helping to solve some of the most pressing global issues. We're delighted that Sussex academics are delivering research that offers hope in realising the positive potential of next-generation quantum technology in crucial areas such as sustainability, drug development, and cybersecurity.”  

-ENDS-

NOTES TO EDITOR

[1] Webber, M., et. al. AVS Quantum Sci. 4, 013801 (2022)

[2] Lekitsch, B., et al., Science Advances, 3(2), 1–12 (2017)

MEDIA CONTACTS

University of Sussex

Alice Ingall: a.r.ingall@sussex.ac.uk / 07899096299
Anna Ford: a.ford@sussex.ac.uk / press@sussex.ac.uk

Universal Quantum

Gemma Church: gemma@universalquantum.com / media@universalquantum.com /+44 7967 565 080

ABOUT THE UNIVERSITY OF SUSSEX

For over 60 years the aim of our courses, research, culture and campus has been to stimulate, excite and challenge. So, from scientific discovery to global policy, from student welfare to career development, the University of Sussex innovates and takes a lead. And today, in every part of society and across the world, you will find someone from the University of Sussex making an original and valuable contribution. Visit www.sussex.ac.uk     

ABOUT UNIVERSAL QUANTUM

Universal Quantum builds quantum computers that will one day help humanity solve some of its most pressing problems in areas such as drug discovery and climate change as well as shed light on its biggest scientific mysteries. To achieve this, quantum computers with millions of qubits are required, which is often described as one of the biggest technology challenges of our time.

Universal Quantum has developed a unique modular architecture to solve exactly that challenge. Its trapped ion-based electronic quantum computing modules are manufactured using available silicon technology. Individual modules are connected using its record-breaking UQ Connect technology to form an architecture that can scale to millions of qubits.

With 15+ years of quantum computing experience, Universal Quantum is a spin-out from the University of Sussex, founded by Dr Sebastian Weidt and Professor Winfried Hensinger in 2018 and supported by leading investors. Visit www.universalquantum.com
 

University of Sussex and Universal Quantum scientists, Professor Winfried Hensinger and Dr Sebastian Weidt in University of Sussex quantum computing labs.

Quantum computer setup at the University of Sussex with two quantum computer microchips where quantum bits are transferred from one microchip to another with record speed.

CREDIT

University of Sussex

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JOURNAL

Nature Communications

DOI

10.1038/s41467-022-35285-3 

METHOD OF RESEARCH

Experimental study

SUBJECT OF RESEARCH

Not applicable

ARTICLE TITLE

A high-fidelity quantum matter-link between ion-trap microchip modules

ARTICLE PUBLICATION DATE

8-Feb-2023

COI STATEMENT

The authors declare the following competing interests: M.A., F.B., F.R.L.-G., S.W. and W.K.H. are associated and/or hold shares with quantum computing company Universal Quantum Ltd. that will make use of some of the findings of this article in the quantum computers they develop. The remaining authors declare no other competing interests.

SCI-FI-TEK

‘Rosetta stone’ of code allows scientists to run core quantum computing operations

Physicists winning the battle to reduce physical-to-logical qubit ratio

University of Sydney

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Lead author and PhD student Vassili Matsos looking at the Paul trap quantum computing device in the Quantum Control Laboratory at the University of Sydney.

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Credit: Fiona Wolf/University of Sydney

To build a large-scale quantum computer that works, scientists and engineers need to overcome the spontaneous errors that quantum bits, or qubits, create as they operate.

Scientists encode these building blocks of quantum information to suppress errors in other qubits so that a minority can operate in a way that produces useful outcomes.

As the number of useful (or logical) qubits grows, the number of physical qubits required grows even further. As this scales up, the sheer number of qubits needed to create a useful quantum machine becomes an engineering nightmare.

Now, for the first time, quantum scientists at the Quantum Control Laboratory at the University of Sydney Nano Institute have demonstrated a type of quantum logic gate that drastically reduces the number physical qubits needed for its operation.

To do this, they built an entangling logic gate on a single atom using an error-correcting code nicknamed the ‘Rosetta stone’ of quantum computing. It earns that name because it translates smooth, continuous quantum oscillations into clean, digital-like discrete states, making errors easier to spot and fix, and importantly, allowing a highly compact way to encode logical qubits.

GKP CODES: A ROSETTA STONE FOR QUANTUM COMPUTING

This curiously named Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill (GKP) code has for many years offered a theoretical possibility for significantly reducing the physical number of qubits needed to produce a functioning ‘logical qubit’. Albeit by trading efficiency for complexity, making the codes very difficult to control.

Research published today in Nature Physics demonstrates this as a physical reality, tapping into the natural oscillations of a trapped ion (a charged atom of ytterbium) to store GKP codes and, for the first time, realising quantum entangling gates between them.

Led by Sydney Horizon Fellow Dr Tingrei Tan at the University of Sydney Nano Institute, scientists have used their exquisite control over the harmonic motion of a trapped ion to bridge the coding complexity of GKP qubits, allowing a demonstration of their entanglement.

“Our experiments have shown the first realisation of a universal logical gate set for GKP qubits,” Dr Tan said. “We did this by precisely controlling the natural vibrations, or harmonic oscillations, of a trapped ion in such a way that we can manipulate individual GKP qubits or entangle them as a pair.”

QUANTUM LOGIC GATE

A logic gate is an information switch that allows computers – quantum and classical – to be programmable to perform logical operations. Quantum logic gates use the entanglement of qubits to produce a completely different sort of operational system to that used in classical computing, underpinning the great promise of quantum computers.

First author Vassili Matsos is a PhD student in the School of Physics and Sydney Nano. He said: “Effectively, we store two error-correctable logical qubits in a single trapped ion and demonstrate entanglement between them.

“We did this using quantum control software developed by Q-CTRL, a spin-off start-up company from the Quantum Control Laboratory, with a physics-based model to design quantum gates that minimise the distortion of GKP logical qubits, so they maintain the delicate structure of the GKP code while processing quantum information.”

A MILESTONE IN QUANTUM TECHNOLOGY

What Mr Matsos did is entangle two ‘quantum vibrations’ of a single atom. The trapped atom vibrates in three dimensions. Movement in each dimension is described by quantum mechanics and each is considered a ‘quantum state’. By entangling two of these quantum states realised as qubits, Mr Matsos created a logic gate using just a single atom, a milestone in quantum technology.

This result massively reduces the quantum hardware required to create these logic gates, which allow quantum machines to be programmed.

Dr Tan said: “GKP error correction codes have long promised a reduction in hardware demands to address the resource overhead challenge for scaling quantum computers. Our experiments achieved a key milestone, demonstrating that these high-quality quantum controls provide a key tool to manipulate more than just one logical qubit.

“By demonstrating universal quantum gates using these qubits, we have a foundation to work towards large-scale quantum-information processing in a highly hardware-efficient fashion.”

Across three experiments described in the paper, Dr Tan’s team used a single ytterbium ion contained in what is known as a Paul trap. This uses a complex array of lasers at room temperature to hold the single atom in the trap, allowing its natural vibrations to be controlled and utilised to produce the complex GKP codes.

This research represents an important demonstration that quantum logic gates can be developed with a reduced physical number of qubits, increasing their efficiency.

Download photos of the researchers and artist’s impression at this link.

Interviews

Dr Tingrei Tan | tingrei.tan@sydney.edu.au

Media enquiries

Marcus Strom | marcus.strom@sydney.edu.au | +61 474 269 459

Outside of work hours, please call +61 2 8627 0246 (directs to a mobile number) or email media.office@sydney.edu.au. 

Research

Matsos, V. et al ‘Universal quantum gate set for Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill logical qubits’ (Nature Physics 2025) DOI: 10.1038/s41567-025-03002-8

Declaration

The authors declare no competing interests. Funding was received from the Australian Research Council, Sydney Horizon Fellowship, the US Office of Naval Research, the US Army Research Office, the US Air Force Office of Scientific Research, Lockheed Martin, Sydney Quantum Academy and private funding from H. and A. Harley.

  

Artist's impression of the entangled logic gate built by University of Sydney quantum scientists.

Dr Tingrei Tan (left) and his PhD student Vassili Matsos inspect the Paul trap used in this experiment in the Quantum Control Laboratory at the University of Sydney Nano Institute.

Credit

Fiona Wolf/University of Sydney

Journal

Nature Physics

DOI

10.1038/s41567-025-03002-8 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Universal quantum gate set for Gottesman-Kitaev-Preskill logical qubits

New benchmark in secure quantum communication

The Hebrew University of Jerusalem

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Quantum Cryptography with quantum dot based compact and high rate single photon nano-devices

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Credit: Lars Luder

Physicists have developed a breakthrough concept in quantum encryption that makes private communication more secure over significantly longer distances, surpassing state-of-the-art technologies. For decades, experts believed such a technology upgrade required perfect optical hardware, namely, light sources that strictly emit one light particle (photon) at a time—something extremely difficult and expensive to build. But the new approach uses innovative encryption protocols applied to tiny, engineered materials called quantum dots to send encrypted information securely, even with imperfect light sources. Real-world tests show it can outperform even the best of current systems, potentially bringing quantum-safe communication closer to everyday use.

 

A team of physicists has made a breakthrough that could bring secure quantum communication closer to everyday use — without needing flawless hardware.

The research, led by PhD students Yuval Bloom and Yoad Ordan, under the guidance of Professor Ronen Rapaport from the Racah Institute of Physics at Hebrew University in collaboration with researchers from Los-Alamos National Labs, and published in PRX Quantum, introduces a new practical approach that significantly improve how we send quantum encrypted information using light particles — even when using imperfect equipment.

Cracking a 40-Year-Old Challenge in Quantum Communication

For four decades, the holy grail of quantum key distribution (QKD) — the science of creating unbreakable encryption using quantum mechanics — has hinged on one elusive requirement: perfectly engineered single-photon sources. These are tiny light sources that can emit one particle of light (photon) at a time. But in practice, building such devices with absolute precision has proven extremely difficult and expensive.

To work around that, the field has relied heavily on lasers, which are easier to produce but not ideal. These lasers send faint pulses of light that contain a small, but unpredictable, number of photons — a compromise that limits both security and the distance over which data can be safely transmitted, as a smart eavesdropper can “steal” the information bits that are encoded simultaneously on more than one photon.

A Better Way with Imperfect Tools

Bloom, Ordan, and their team flipped the script. Instead of waiting for perfect photon sources, they developed two new protocols that work with what we have now — sub-Poissonian photon sources based on quantum dots, which are tiny semiconductor particles that behave like artificial atoms.

By dynamically engineering the optical behavior of these quantum dots and pairing them with nanoantennas, the team was able to tweak how the photons are emitted. This fine-tuning allowed them to suggest and demonstrate two advanced encryption strategies:

• A truncated decoy state protocol: A new version of a widely used quantum encryption approach, tailored for imperfect single photon sources, that weeds out potential hacking attempts due to multi-photon events.
• A heralded purification protocol: A new method that dramatically improves signal security by "filtering" the excess photons in real time, ensuring that only true single photon bits are recorded.

In simulations and lab experiments, these techniques outperformed even the best versions of traditional laser-based QKD methods — extending the distance over which a secure key can be exchanged by more than 3 decibels, a substantial leap in the field.

A Real-World Test and a Step Toward Practical Quantum Networks

To prove it wasn’t just theory, the team built a real-world quantum communication setup using a room-temperature quantum dot source. They ran their new reinforced version of the well-known BB84 encryption protocol — the backbone of many quantum key distribution systems — and showed that their approach was not only feasible but superior to existing technologies.

What’s more, their approach is compatible with a wide range of quantum light sources, potentially lowering the cost and technical barriers to deploying quantum-secure communication on a large scale.

“This is a significant step toward practical, accessible quantum encryption,” said Professor Rapaport. “It shows that we don’t need perfect hardware to get exceptional performance — we just need to be smarter about how we use what we have.”

Co-Lead author Yuval Bloom added, “We hope this work helps open the door to real-world quantum networks that are both secure and affordable. The cool thing is that we don’t have to wait, it can be implemented with what we already have in many labs world-wide”

 

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Journal

PRX Quantum

DOI

10.1103/7fdd-m92n 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

an

Article Publication Date

21-Aug-2025

 

Chicago Quantum Exchange-led coalition advances to final round in NSF Engine competition

University of Chicago

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A Chicago Quantum Exchange–led coalition focused on leveraging cutting-edge quantum technology to protect the nation’s most sensitive information from cyber attacks has advanced to the final stage of the National Science Foundation Regional Innovation Engines (NSF Engines) program.

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Credit: Chicago Quantum Exchange

A Chicago Quantum Exchange–led coalition focused on leveraging cutting-edge quantum technology to protect the nation’s most sensitive information from cyber attacks has advanced to the final stage of the National Science Foundation Regional Innovation Engines (NSF Engines) program, the NSF announced Thursday afternoon.

If funded, Quantum Connected, a Midwest-based coalition of academic, industry, nonprofit, and government partners, will build critically needed quantum-based cyber security. It is one of 15 teams who will pitch the NSF on different projects. Winners, anticipated to be announced in early 2026, could receive as much as $160 million over 10 years to advance technologies that maintain American competitiveness in critical areas.

 “Quantum technology is our best long-term bet for securing our nation’s information, which faces escalating threats that classical technology is not equipped to address,” said David Awschalom, the University of Chicago’s Liew Family professor of molecular engineering, the director of the CQE, and Quantum Connected principal investigator. “Our region has all of the key elements — leading scientists and engineers, quantum startups, physical facilities — to deliver quantum-based security. The key gap is NSF funding support. An NSF Engine award would be an economic boost for the Illinois-Wisconsin-Indiana region. More crucially, though, it would be a critical win for US economic and national security — one we cannot do without.”

The CQE region is home to leading universities and national labs; more than two dozen quantum startups; and a growing roster of facilities across the Quantum Prairie, a region that includes Illinois, Wisconsin, and Indiana and is a leading hub for quantum innovation. Those facilities include the Roberts Impact Lab, a commercialization center and regional hub for business growth under development by Purdue University Northwest; Hyde Park Labs, which through the UChicago Science Incubator provides access to shared quantum equipment, the growing Chicago Quantum Network, and quantum graduation suites; a National Quantum Algorithm Center; and the soon-to-be-built Illinois Quantum & Microelectronics Park, which will include the DARPA-Illinois Quantum Proving Ground, shared cryogenic facilities, and more.

 

The region is also the home of the CQE-hosted Chicago Quantum Summit, which draws top leaders from government, academia, and industry each year. Tickets are on sale now for the November 3 and 4 event.

Launched by NSF TIP, the NSF Engines program is building and scaling regional innovation ecosystems across the country by supporting broad multi-sector coalitions to accelerate breakthrough emerging technology R&D that drives growth and, ultimately, bolsters US economic competitiveness and national security. Quantum technology has the potential to revolutionize a wide variety of industries and offer solutions to pressing global challenges. 

A CQE-led coalition was also among those to receive an NSF Development Award in 2024, which it used to deepen partnerships and strengthen workforce and economic development plans across the three-state region.

In addition to an NSF Engine Development Award, the CQE also leads the US Economic Development Administration–designated Bloch Quantum Tech Hub, which is aimed at accelerating the development of quantum technologies that strengthen US economic and national security. The Bloch, which launched the nation’s first quantum innovation team rallying entire sectors around the nation’s most urgent challenges, was instrumental in attracting Bluefors, the world leader in manufacturing cryogenic measurement systems for quantum technology, to the region and bringing its Bluefors Lab service into the United States for the first time. 

SFU physicists create new electrically controlled silicon-based quantum device

Simon Fraser University

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A pioneering team of scientists at Simon Fraser University have created a new type of silicon-based quantum device controlled both optically and electrically.

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Credit: Michael Dobinson/Simon Fraser University

A pioneering team of scientists at Simon Fraser University have created a new type of silicon-based quantum device controlled both optically and electrically, marking the latest breakthrough in the global quantum computing race.

Published in the journal Nature Photonics, researchers at the SFU Silicon Quantum Technology Lab and leading Canada-based quantum company Photonic Inc. reveal new diode nanocavity devices for electrical control over silicon colour centre qubits.

The devices have achieved the first-ever demonstration of an electrically-injected single-photon source in silicon. The breakthrough clears another hurdle toward building a quantum computer – which has enormous potential to provide computing power well beyond that of today’s supercomputers and advance fields like chemistry, materials science, medicine and cybersecurity.

“Previously, we controlled these qubits, called T centres, optically (with lasers),” says Daniel Higginbottom, assistant professor of physics. “Now we’re introducing electrical control as well, which increases the device capability and is a step toward applications in a scalable quantum computer.”

According to PhD candidate Michael Dobinson, the lead author of the study, the breakthrough will allow the research team to explore the different applications of the devices and the feasibility of scaling them up in larger quantum processors.

“This first demonstration shows that we can fabricate devices which allow for simultaneous optical and electrical control of T centres. This is exciting as it open the door to many applications in quantum computing and networking,” says Dobinson. “Overall, the optical and electrical operation combined with the silicon platform makes this a very scalable and broadly applicable device.”

The SFU lab’s leads, Stephanie Simmons and Mike Thewalt, co-founded Photonic Inc., to develop commercial-scale quantum computers and quantum networks.

The company, which recently announced plans to establish a research and development facility in the U.K., was an integral partner in the latest study.

Christian Dangel, manager, quantum devices in the Integrated Photonics team at Photonic Inc. and a co-author of the manuscript says, “This project was a great opportunity to leverage Photonic’s advanced fabrication capabilities and test their performance in next-generation devices in a research environment.”

Researchers at the Silicon Quantum Technology Lab were among the first in the world to explore using silicon colour centres for quantum technology.

Developing quantum technology using silicon provides opportunities to rapidly scale quantum computing. The global semiconductor industry is already able to inexpensively manufacture silicon computer chips at scale, with a staggering degree of precision. This technology forms the backbone of modern computing and networking, from smartphones to the world’s most powerful supercomputers.

“Our colleagues Stephanie Simmons and Mike Thewalt first proposed silicon colour centres as a platform for quantum computing at a time when very few people were thinking about them at all,” says Higginbottom.

Now, national governments, including Canada through its National Quantum Strategy, major universities and corporations like IBM, Google and Microsoft are spending billions of dollars in a scramble to be first out of the gate with a scalable quantum computer.

Higginbottom says being at the forefront of the field has been a thrilling experience.

“It fits into this trajectory that we've been on. In 2020, SFU first introduced silicon T centers for quantum applications. In 2022, we integrated Single T centers with patterned nanophotonic devices,” he says. “But those devices didn't have any interfaces or controls. Now we're controlling them optically and electronically. We're unlocking some of the capabilities that you need to build a useful computer out of these things.”

Available SFU Experts

DANIEL HIGGINBOTTOM, assistant professor, physics daniel_higginbottom@sfu.ca

MICHAEL DOBINSON, PhD candidate, physics michael_dobinson@sfu.ca

Contact

MATT KIELTYKA, SFU Communication & Marketing 236.880.2187 | matt_kieltyka@sfu.ca

SIMON FRASER UNIVERSITY Communications & Marketing | SFU Media Experts Directory 778.782.3210

About Simon Fraser University

Who We Are SFU is a leading research university, advancing an inclusive and sustainable future. Over the past 60 years, SFU has been recognized among the top universities worldwide in providing a world-class education and working with communities and partners to develop and share knowledge for deeper understanding and meaningful impact. Committed to excellence in everything we do, SFU fosters innovation to address global challenges and continues to build a welcoming, inclusive community where everyone feels a sense of belonging. With campuses in British Columbia’s three largest cities—Burnaby, Surrey and Vancouver—SFU has ten faculties that deliver 368 undergraduate degree programs and 149 graduate degree programs for more than 37,000 students each year. The university boasts more than 200,000 alumni residing in 145+ countries.

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Journal

Nature Photonics

DOI

10.1038/s41566-025-01752-8 

Article Title

Electrically triggered spin–photon devices in silicon