NASA’s Artemis set to search for lunar ice
By Dr. Tim Sandle
July 12, 2025
DIGITAL JOURNAL
Part of NASA's giant SLS rocket which will be used for the Artemis mission to return humans to the Moon. — © AFP MANDEL NGAN
Back to the Moon. NASA is gearing up for a new chapter in lunar exploration by sending a trio of high-tech instruments to the Moon. Two of the devices will be attached to a new lunar rover capable of carrying astronauts or operating remotely, while the third will gather data from orbit. For the Moon-bound devices, these will be equipped onto what is known as an LTV (Lunar Terrain Vehicle).
The LTV is part of NASA’s efforts to explore the lunar surface as part of the Artemis campaign and is the first crew-driven vehicle to operate on the Moon in more than 50 years. The Artemis program’s goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars. This means reestablishing a human presence on the Moon for the first time since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972.
Designed to hold up to two astronauts, as well as operate remotely without a crew, this surface vehicle will enable NASA to achieve more of its science and exploration goals over a wide swath of lunar terrain
Part of NASA's giant SLS rocket which will be used for the Artemis mission to return humans to the Moon. — © AFP MANDEL NGAN
Back to the Moon. NASA is gearing up for a new chapter in lunar exploration by sending a trio of high-tech instruments to the Moon. Two of the devices will be attached to a new lunar rover capable of carrying astronauts or operating remotely, while the third will gather data from orbit. For the Moon-bound devices, these will be equipped onto what is known as an LTV (Lunar Terrain Vehicle).
The LTV is part of NASA’s efforts to explore the lunar surface as part of the Artemis campaign and is the first crew-driven vehicle to operate on the Moon in more than 50 years. The Artemis program’s goal is to establish a permanent base on the Moon to facilitate human missions to Mars. This means reestablishing a human presence on the Moon for the first time since the Apollo 17 mission in 1972.
Designed to hold up to two astronauts, as well as operate remotely without a crew, this surface vehicle will enable NASA to achieve more of its science and exploration goals over a wide swath of lunar terrain
.
Will the Moon be a source of Earth bound dispute and conflict? Image by Tim Sandle, taken at the Greenwich Maritime Museum.
These tools will focus on hunting for ice, mapping minerals, and analysing what lies beneath the surface. The aim is to offer a clearer picture of the Moon s makeup and its potential resources. While a future battle over resources might send geopolitical shudders through many, understanding more about our only satellite offers an enticing jump in scientific understanding.
Hunting minerals with AIRES
The Artemis Infrared Reflectance and Emission Spectrometer (AIRES) will identify, quantify, and map lunar minerals and volatiles, which are materials that evaporate easily, like water, ammonia, or carbon dioxide. The instrument will capture spectral data overlaid on visible light images of both specific features of interest and broad panoramas to discover the distribution of minerals and volatiles across the Moon’s south polar region.
Looking beneath the surface
The Lunar Microwave Active-Passive Spectrometer (L-MAPS) will help define what is below the Moon’s surface and search for possible locations of ice. Containing both a spectrometer and a ground-penetrating radar, the instrument suite will measure temperature, density, and subsurface structures to more than 131 feet (40 meters) below the surface.
The L-MAPS instrument team is led by Matthew Siegler from the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Another aim is to uncover clues to the history of rocky worlds in our solar system.
These tools will focus on hunting for ice, mapping minerals, and analysing what lies beneath the surface. The aim is to offer a clearer picture of the Moon s makeup and its potential resources. While a future battle over resources might send geopolitical shudders through many, understanding more about our only satellite offers an enticing jump in scientific understanding.
Hunting minerals with AIRES
The Artemis Infrared Reflectance and Emission Spectrometer (AIRES) will identify, quantify, and map lunar minerals and volatiles, which are materials that evaporate easily, like water, ammonia, or carbon dioxide. The instrument will capture spectral data overlaid on visible light images of both specific features of interest and broad panoramas to discover the distribution of minerals and volatiles across the Moon’s south polar region.
Looking beneath the surface
The Lunar Microwave Active-Passive Spectrometer (L-MAPS) will help define what is below the Moon’s surface and search for possible locations of ice. Containing both a spectrometer and a ground-penetrating radar, the instrument suite will measure temperature, density, and subsurface structures to more than 131 feet (40 meters) below the surface.
The L-MAPS instrument team is led by Matthew Siegler from the University of Hawaii at Manoa. Another aim is to uncover clues to the history of rocky worlds in our solar system.
The Moon, through trees. Image by Tim Sandle.
From above
The Ultra-Compact Imaging Spectrometer for the Moon (UCIS-Moon) will be used in orbit. The instrument will provide regional context to the discoveries made from the LTV. From above, UCIS-Moon will map the Moon’s geology and volatiles and measure how human activity affects those volatiles.
The spectrometer also will help identify scientifically valuable areas for astronauts to collect lunar samples, while its wide-view images provide the overall context for where these samples will be collected.
The UCIS-Moon instrument will also provide the Moon’s highest spatial resolution data of surface lunar water, mineral makeup, and thermophysical properties.
What this all means
According to Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate: “The Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle will transport humanity farther than ever before across the lunar frontier on an epic journey of scientific exploration and discovery.”
She adds: “By combining the best of human and robotic exploration, the science instruments selected for the LTV will make discoveries that inform us about Earth’s nearest neighbour as well as benefit the health and safety of our astronauts and spacecraft on the Moon.”
These instruments will enable scientists to characterise the surface not only where astronauts explore, but also across the south polar region of the Moon, offering further opportunities for scientific discovery.
From above
The Ultra-Compact Imaging Spectrometer for the Moon (UCIS-Moon) will be used in orbit. The instrument will provide regional context to the discoveries made from the LTV. From above, UCIS-Moon will map the Moon’s geology and volatiles and measure how human activity affects those volatiles.
The spectrometer also will help identify scientifically valuable areas for astronauts to collect lunar samples, while its wide-view images provide the overall context for where these samples will be collected.
The UCIS-Moon instrument will also provide the Moon’s highest spatial resolution data of surface lunar water, mineral makeup, and thermophysical properties.
What this all means
According to Nicky Fox, associate administrator, Science Mission Directorate: “The Artemis Lunar Terrain Vehicle will transport humanity farther than ever before across the lunar frontier on an epic journey of scientific exploration and discovery.”
She adds: “By combining the best of human and robotic exploration, the science instruments selected for the LTV will make discoveries that inform us about Earth’s nearest neighbour as well as benefit the health and safety of our astronauts and spacecraft on the Moon.”
These instruments will enable scientists to characterise the surface not only where astronauts explore, but also across the south polar region of the Moon, offering further opportunities for scientific discovery.
Can microbial life exist on other planets? Lichens provide the answer
By Dr. Tim Sandle
July 13, 2025
DIGITAL JOURNAL
The orange sea lichen, found on coastal rocks. Image by Rosser1954 Roger Griffith - Own work, Public Domain.
Lichen from the Mojave Desert can survive, and replicate, under levels of extreme solar radiation – levels of radiation equivalent to that found on Earth-like planets in other solar systems. This is due to a microscopic “sunscreen” layer that protects the cells within the complex.
Lichens are organisms that consist of a symbiotic association of fungi and algae (or, more accurately, cyanobacteria). The complexes can be found in various environments worldwide and are known for their ability to colonise surfaces like tree bark and rocks.
Lichens play an important role in ecosystems, serving as indicators of air quality by absorbing pollutants and contributing to cleaner air. They are also often visually impressive, appearing as colourful patches on trees and rocks.
The structure of lichens includes layers of fungi and algae, with the thallus being the prominent non-reproductive body
.
A lichen that grows like powder dusted on a rock. Image by Tigerente – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0
Mojave Desert lichen
Researchers from the U.S. Desert Research Institute have been examining the common lichen Clavascidium lacinulatum, found in the Mojave Desert. The lichen survived for three months under levels of solar radiation previously considered lethal. Remarkably, the lichen was able to recover and replicate.
C. lacinulatum is a dark brown squamulous terricolous lichen. In one of the areas it can be commonly found – Joshua Tree National Park, U.S. – it is the most common of the biological soil crust lichens.
According to lead scientist Henry Sun: “The study was motivated by a curious observation…I was just walking in the desert and I noticed that the lichens growing there aren’t green, they’re black. They are photosynthetic and contain chlorophyll, so you would think they’d be green. So I wondered, ‘What is the pigment they’re wearing?’ And that pigment turned out to be the world’s best sunscreen.”
Exoplanets and other life
In relation to life on other worlds, scientists have pondered whether many of the Earth-like planets discovered in recent years could possibly harbour life. However, several of these planets revolve around stars known as M and F stars that emit intense UVC radiation, especially during solar flares. UVC rays represent the shorter, more damaging wavelengths, proving lethal to life after a given period of exposure.
Sun collected the lichen from the Mojave Desert close to Las Vegas. He placed it next to a UVC lamp in a controlled laboratory setting for three months straight. Remarkably, half of the algal cells in the lichen remained viable and replicated when rehydrated.
Why is the lichen resistant?
Sun investigated the lichen’s protective layer by cutting a cross-section of it and he found that the top layer was darker, analogous to a human’s suntan. When the algal cells were separated from the fungi and protective layer, exposure to the same UVC radiation killed the fungal cells in less than a minute.
The discovery that lichen has evolved this protective layer to UVC radiation was surprising, because it is not necessary for their survival. Earth’s atmosphere filters out UVC rays. Sun assumes the protection is a mere bonus, as by-product of the lichen’s protection from the type of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the surface – UVA and UVB.
Some of the damage that occurs from exposure to intense solar radiation is the result of chemical reactions with the atmosphere, particularly the production of ozone when oxygen, nitric oxide, and UV radiation interact. To test the lichen’s protection under different atmospheric conditions, the researchers placed it in an oxygen-free box with the UVC light and found that the radiation damage was further reduced.
The scientists conclude that the lichen’s top layer – a less than one millimetre thick – assures that all the cells below are protected from radiation. This layer acts as a photo stabiliser and protects the cells from harmful chemical reactions caused by the radiation, including reactive oxygen.
The research appears in the journal Astrobiology, titled “UVC-Intense Exoplanets May Not Be Uninhabitable: Evidence from a Desert Lichen.”
Mojave Desert lichen
Researchers from the U.S. Desert Research Institute have been examining the common lichen Clavascidium lacinulatum, found in the Mojave Desert. The lichen survived for three months under levels of solar radiation previously considered lethal. Remarkably, the lichen was able to recover and replicate.
C. lacinulatum is a dark brown squamulous terricolous lichen. In one of the areas it can be commonly found – Joshua Tree National Park, U.S. – it is the most common of the biological soil crust lichens.
According to lead scientist Henry Sun: “The study was motivated by a curious observation…I was just walking in the desert and I noticed that the lichens growing there aren’t green, they’re black. They are photosynthetic and contain chlorophyll, so you would think they’d be green. So I wondered, ‘What is the pigment they’re wearing?’ And that pigment turned out to be the world’s best sunscreen.”
Exoplanets and other life
In relation to life on other worlds, scientists have pondered whether many of the Earth-like planets discovered in recent years could possibly harbour life. However, several of these planets revolve around stars known as M and F stars that emit intense UVC radiation, especially during solar flares. UVC rays represent the shorter, more damaging wavelengths, proving lethal to life after a given period of exposure.
Sun collected the lichen from the Mojave Desert close to Las Vegas. He placed it next to a UVC lamp in a controlled laboratory setting for three months straight. Remarkably, half of the algal cells in the lichen remained viable and replicated when rehydrated.
Why is the lichen resistant?
Sun investigated the lichen’s protective layer by cutting a cross-section of it and he found that the top layer was darker, analogous to a human’s suntan. When the algal cells were separated from the fungi and protective layer, exposure to the same UVC radiation killed the fungal cells in less than a minute.
The discovery that lichen has evolved this protective layer to UVC radiation was surprising, because it is not necessary for their survival. Earth’s atmosphere filters out UVC rays. Sun assumes the protection is a mere bonus, as by-product of the lichen’s protection from the type of ultraviolet radiation that reaches the surface – UVA and UVB.
Some of the damage that occurs from exposure to intense solar radiation is the result of chemical reactions with the atmosphere, particularly the production of ozone when oxygen, nitric oxide, and UV radiation interact. To test the lichen’s protection under different atmospheric conditions, the researchers placed it in an oxygen-free box with the UVC light and found that the radiation damage was further reduced.
The scientists conclude that the lichen’s top layer – a less than one millimetre thick – assures that all the cells below are protected from radiation. This layer acts as a photo stabiliser and protects the cells from harmful chemical reactions caused by the radiation, including reactive oxygen.
The research appears in the journal Astrobiology, titled “UVC-Intense Exoplanets May Not Be Uninhabitable: Evidence from a Desert Lichen.”
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