The Ukraine crisis and media systems:
Comparison of UK and Russian media coverage
Thesis submitted in accordance with the
requirements of the University of Liverpool for the
degree of Doctor in Philosophy
By
Zixiu Liu
September 2019
Abstract
University of Liverpool
Zixiu Liu
Doctor of Philosophy
September 2019
https://livrepository.liverpool.ac.uk/3071360/1/200712005_Sep2019.pdf
The Ukraine crisis and media systems: Comparison of UK and Russian media
coverage
ABSTRACT
This study uses a mixed-methods approach to examine the framing of the
Ukraine crisis from 30 November 2013 to 28 February 2015 by the news media in
Russia and the UK. Drawing upon the broader framework of media systems theory
(Hallin & Mancini, 2004, 2012a; Vartanova, 2012), the thesis identifies and analyses
how different media outlets from hybrid and liberal political regimes played a role in
the reporting of the Ukraine crisis. The comparative analysis of the news coverage
encompasses three news sectors from Russia and the UK that differ culturally,
economically, and geopolitically: RT, The Moscow Times, and Pravda.ru from
Russia and the BBC, The Guardian, and Mail Online from the UK.
The study poses four research questions. The first and main question explores
the extent to which the Russian and British news media coverage of the Ukraine
crisis supports or refutes current media systems theory. The second and third
questions relate to the attention paid and the actual frames used by the different
media outlets from Russia and the UK, respectively. The final question focuses on
the difference (if any) between the framing of the crisis in Russia and the UK, thus
feeding into the analysis in response to the main research question.
Following Godefroidt et al.’s (2016) methodological framework using
generic, diagnostic and prognostic frames, the findings suggest that first, the Russian
media dedicated more attention to the Ukraine crisis than the British media,
reflecting the geopolitical interest of the Russian government. Second, both the
Russian (RT and Pravda.ru in particular) and the British media tended to use a
human-interest angle extensively in discussing the conflict, although in different
light. While the former put forward the idea of humanitarianism, the latter stressed
the importance of Ukraine’s sovereignty. The media’s articulations of humanitarian
sentiments, however, revealed an overarching illiberal trend, by naturalising and
justifying their host countries’ involvements in the crisis. The manufacturing consent
thesis (Herman & Chomsky, 1988) is useful in explaining the media performance in
both the hybrid regime (Russia) and the liberal democracy (the UK). Finally, the
study found The Moscow Times from Russia to be critical of the country’s policy on
Ukraine, thus supporting the Statist Commercialised model (Vartanova, 2012). On
the other hand, the study, to some extent, refuted the Liberal model (Hallin &
Mancini, 2004). The level of journalistic professionalism could not be substantiated
as high as the liberal model suggests to be, mainly due to a lack of in-depth analysis
especially when discussing Russia and President Vladimir Putin. Despite the fact that
the British media were more likely to explain the roots of and the possible solutions
to the Ukraine crisis than the Russian media, the former overall were identified as
delivering an anti-Russia hyperbole in their one-sided coverage of the Ukraine

conflict.


Table of Contents
Table of Contents.......................................................................................................... i
List of Tables............................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures............................................................................................................. ix
List of Abbreviations................................................................................................... xi
Abstract ...................................................................................................................... xii
Acknowledgements...................................................................................................xiii
Introduction.................................................................................................................. 1
Research Rationale ................................................................................................... 2
Original Contribution ............................................................................................... 5
Structure of the Thesis.............................................................................................. 7
Chapter 1 .................................................................................................................... 11
Media Systems and War Coverage ............................................................................ 11
1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 11
1.2 Media and Democracy...................................................................................... 13
1.2.1 Five functions of the media in democracy................................................. 13
1.3 The Media Systems .......................................................................................... 21
1.3.1 The political contexts: liberal vs. hybrid regimes...................................... 21
1.3.2 The media systems of liberal democracies. ............................................... 23
1.3.3 The media systems of hybrid regimes. ...................................................... 29
1.4 Media and Conflict........................................................................................... 34
1.4.1 The manufacturing consent thesis.............................................................. 36
1.4.2 The CNN effect theory. ............................................................................. 53
1.4.3 Media coverage of the Ukraine crisis. ....................................................... 64
1.5 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 71
Chapter 2 .................................................................................................................... 72
British and Russian Media ......................................................................................... 72
ii
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 72
2.2 British Media: Liberal Model........................................................................... 73
2.3 Russian Media: Statist Commercialised Model ............................................... 77
2.3.1 Major transformations in media industry from 1990s to 2000s................. 79
2.3.2 Economic and political factors. ................................................................. 83
2.4 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 86
Chapter 3 .................................................................................................................... 87
The Ukraine Crisis ..................................................................................................... 87
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 87
3.2 The Ukraine Crisis............................................................................................ 87
3.3 Conclusion........................................................................................................ 94
Chapter 4 .................................................................................................................... 95
Methodology .............................................................................................................. 95
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 95
4.2 Theoretical Backgrounds.................................................................................. 97
4.2.1 Qualitative analysis.................................................................................... 98
4.2.2 Framing analysis. ..................................................................................... 100
4.3 The Case Study – The Ukraine Crisis ............................................................ 117
4.4 The Sample..................................................................................................... 118
4.4.1 The choice of periods............................................................................... 118
4.4.2 The choice of media sources.................................................................... 122
4.4.3 The choice of keywords........................................................................... 126
4.5 The Implementation in the Case of Ukraine................................................... 127
Step 1: Producing a coding scheme. ................................................................. 127
Step 2: Collecting data...................................................................................... 128
Step 3: Analysing data. ..................................................................................... 130
Step 4: Analysing the results. ........................................................................... 131
iii
4.6 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 133
Chapter 5 .................................................................................................................. 134
Findings – Russian Media........................................................................................ 134
5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 134
5.2 Press Attention ............................................................................................... 135
1
st period: 30. 11. 2013 – 26. 02. 2014. ............................................................ 135
2
nd period: 27. 02. – 20. 03. 2014. .................................................................... 136
3
rd period: 21. 03. – 17. 07. 2014...................................................................... 138
4
th period: 18. 07. 2014 – 28. 02. 2015............................................................. 139
5.3 Framing of the Ukraine Crisis........................................................................ 140
1
st period: 30. 11. 2013 – 26. 02. 2014. ............................................................ 140
2
nd period: 27. 02. – 20. 03. 2014. .................................................................... 148
3
rd period: 21. 03. – 17. 07. 2014...................................................................... 156
4
th period: 18. 07. 2014 – 28. 02. 2015............................................................. 169
5.4 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 182
Chapter 6 .................................................................................................................. 184
Findings – British Media.......................................................................................... 184
6.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 184
6.2 Press Attention ............................................................................................... 184
1
st period: 30. 11. 2013 – 26. 02. 2014. ............................................................ 184
2
nd period: 27. 02. – 20. 03. 2014. .................................................................... 186
3
rd period: 21. 03. – 17. 07. 2014...................................................................... 187
4
th period: 18. 07. 2014 – 28. 02. 2015............................................................. 189
6.3 Framing of the Ukraine Crisis........................................................................ 190
1
st period: 30. 11. 2013 – 26. 02. 2014. ............................................................ 190
2
nd period: 27. 02. – 20. 03. 2014. .................................................................... 197
3
rd period: 21. 03. – 17. 07. 2014...................................................................... 205
iv
4
th period: 18. 07. 2014 – 28. 02. 2015............................................................. 216
6.4 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 227
Chapter 7 .................................................................................................................. 229
Comparison between the Russian and the British Media Coverage of the Ukraine
Crisis ........................................................................................................................ 229
7.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 229
7.2 Press Attention ............................................................................................... 230
1
st period: 30. 11. 2013 – 26. 02. 2014. ............................................................ 230
2
nd period: 27. 02. – 20. 03. 2014. .................................................................... 231
3
rd period: 21. 03. – 17. 07. 2014...................................................................... 232
4
th period: 18. 07. 2014 – 28. 02. 2015............................................................. 232
7.3 Framing the Ukraine Crisis ............................................................................ 235
1
st period: 30. 11. 2013 – 26. 02. 2014. ............................................................ 235
2
nd period: 27. 02. – 20. 03. 2014. .................................................................... 242
3
rd period: 21. 03. – 17. 07. 2014...................................................................... 248
4
th period: 18. 07. 2014 – 28. 02. 2015............................................................. 255
7.4 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 261
Chapter 8 .................................................................................................................. 264
Discussion ................................................................................................................ 264
8.1 Introduction .................................................................................................... 264
8.2 Manufacturing Consent .................................................................................. 264
8.2.1 One good vs. one bad alternative: economy. ........................................... 266
8.2.2 Legitimise ‘ours’ & delegitimise ‘theirs’: morality................................. 268
8.2.3 Good vs. evil............................................................................................ 270
8.2.4 Both-side construction. ............................................................................ 281
8.3 The Media Systems of Hybrid and Liberal Regimes ..................................... 283
8.3.1 The statist commercialised model............................................................ 283
v
8.3.2 The liberal model. .................................................................................... 287
8.4 Conclusion...................................................................................................... 293
Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 296
General Summary of the Study ............................................................................ 297
Original Contribution ........................................................................................... 304
Limitations of the Study....................................................................................... 309
Suggestions for Further Studies ........................................................................... 312
References................................................................................................................ 314
Appendices............................................................................................................... 371