It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Wednesday, January 20, 2021
Breakthrough in understanding 'tummy bug' bacteria
IMAGE: SCANNING ELECTRON MICROSCOPE (SEM) IMAGE OF HEALTHY, GROWING VIBRIO PARAHAEMOLYTICUS. view more
CREDIT: UNIVERSITY OF EXETER BIOIMAGING UNIT
Scientists have discovered how bacteria commonly responsible for seafood-related stomach upsets can go dormant and then "wake up".
Vibrio parahaemolyticus is a marine bacterium that can cause gastroenteritis in humans when eaten in raw or undercooked shellfish such as oysters and mussels.
Some of these bacteria are able to turn dormant in poor growth conditions such as cold temperatures - and can remain in that state of hibernation for long periods before resuscitating.
University of Exeter scientists have identified a population of these dormant cells that are better at waking up, and have discovered an enzyme involved in that waking up process.
"Most of these bacteria die when they encounter poor growth conditions, but we identified sub-populations of bacteria that are able to stay dormant for long periods of time," said lead author Dr Sariqa Wagley, of the University of Exeter.
"We found that this population has a better ability to revive when conditions improve.
"Our tests show that when these dormant bacteria are revived they are just as virulent and able to cause disease."
The findings could have implications for seafood safety, as dormant cells are not detectable using routine microbiological screening tests and the true bacterial load (amount of bacteria) could be underestimated.
"When they go dormant, these bacteria change shape, reduce respiration activities and they don't grow like healthy bacteria on agar plates used in standard laboratory tests, so they are much harder to detect," Dr Wagley explained.
"Using a range of tools, we were able to find dormant bacteria in seafood samples and laboratory cultures and look at their genetic content to look for clues in how they might survive for long periods.
"It is important to note that thorough cooking kills bacteria in seafood.
"Our results may also help us predict the conditions that dormant bacteria need in order to revive."
Working with the seafood industry, the Exeter team identified a lactate dehydrogenase enzyme that breaks down lactic acid into pyruvate, a key component of several metabolic pathways (chemical reactions in a cell).
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Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of dormant Vibrio parahaemolyticus.
CREDIT
University of Exeter Bioimaging Unit
The findings suggest that lactate dehydrogenase is essential both for maintaining bacterial dormancy and resuscitation back to an active form.
Vibrio parahaemolyticus usually grows in warm and tropical marine environments, although Dr Wagley said that due to rising sea temperatures in recent years it is now prevalent in UK waters during the summer months.
During the winter, it is not detected in the marine environment around the UK and it is thought to die due to the cold winter temperatures.
This study could explain how Vibrio parahaemolyticus is able remerge in the environment during the summer.
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The study was partly funded by the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC), with additional funding and support from Lyons Seafoods.
The paper, published in the journal PLOS Pathogens, is entitled: "Bacterial dormancy: a subpopulation of viable but non-culturable cells demonstrates better fitness for revival."
CAPTION
Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) image of dormant Vibrio parahaemolyticus
Exploration of toxic Tiger Rattlesnake venom advances use of genetic science techniques
In deciphering a simple, but particularly deadly venom, the research opens avenues for exploration of how genes produce traits
VIDEO: A RESEARCH TEAM LED BY THE UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH FLORIDA STUDIED THE GENOME OF THE TIGER RATTLESNAKE. view more
CREDIT: MICHAEL P. HOGAN, FLORIDA STATE UNIVERSITY
The Tiger Rattlesnake possesses the simplest, yet most toxic venom of any rattlesnake species, and now new research from a team lead by a University of South Florida biologist can explain the genetics behind the predator's fearsome bite.
Published in the new edition of "Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences," USF Department of Integrative Biology Assistant Professor Mark Margres and colleagues across the southeastern United States have sequenced the genome of the Tiger Rattlesnake to understand the genotype of the venom trait. Despite the simplicity of the Tiger Rattlesnake's venom, Margres says it is roughly 40 times more toxic than the venom of the Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnakes here in Florida.
Their work is the most complete characterization of the venom gene-regulatory network to date and its identification of key mechanisms in producing the particularly toxic venom will help scientists explain a wide array of genetic questions.
"Simple genotypes can produce complex traits," Margres said. "Here, we have shown the opposite is also true - a complex genotype can produce simple traits."
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Mark Margres photographs an Eastern Diamondback Rattlesnake at Caladesi Island, Florida.
CREDIT
University of South Florida
Margres collaborated with colleagues at Clemson University, Florida State University and the University of South Alabama, in the project, which sought to explain whether trait differences are derived from differences in the number of genes, their sequence or how they are regulated. Their work is only the second time a rattlesnake genome has been decoded.
An organism's genotype is the set of genes it carries, and its phenotype is all of its observable characteristics, which can be influenced by its genes, the environment in which it lives, and other factors. Evolutionary biologists work to understand how genes influence the variation in phenotype among otherwise similar organisms. In this case, they looked at why different species of rattlesnakes differ in venom composition and toxicity.
Tiger Rattlesnakes are native to the Sonoran Desert of southern Arizona and northern Mexico where the relatively small pit viper preys on lizards and rodents. While some species of rattlesnakes have complex venoms that are the result of scores of genes, Margres said the Tiger Rattlesnake's venom is quite simple - as few as 15 of its 51 toxic-producing genes actively drive the production of proteins and peptides that attacks its prey's nervous system, forces blood pressure to drop and causes blood clotting to cease.
The team found that the number of venom genes greatly exceeds the number of proteins produced in the simple phenotype, indicating a complex process was at the heart of the toxic venom and the Tiger Rattlesnakes even has toxic genes to spare.
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Tiger Rattlesnake used in the study was found in the Santa Rita Mountains in Arizona.
"Only about half of the venom genes in the genotype were expressed," Margres said. "To me, the interesting part is why are the non-expressed genes still present? These genes can make functional toxins, they just don't. That needs to be explored further."
Beyond understanding this one species of venomous snake, Margres said the research will help advance genetic science by showing the techniques more commonly used on genetic research on mice and fruit flies, organisms that are often used in genetic studies, can also work when applied to less-studied organisms like snakes. The team used genetic sequencing techniques that are common in human genetics research and in doing so, opened the door for scientists to understand the genotype-phenotype relationship in many other organisms.
Another potential side benefit of the research, Margres said, is that snake venom is used in medicine for humans to combat stroke and high blood pressure. The more scientists understand about venom, the better medical engineering can apply that knowledge in drug discovery and development.
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The research was funded by the National Science Foundation and Clemson University.
Disease threatens to decimate western bats
White-nose syndrome predicted to drastically impact hibernating bat species in the West
IMAGE: A RESEARCHER ABOUT TO HANDLE A HIBERNATING TOWNSEND'S BIG-EARED BAT IN AN ABANDONED MINE IN NEVADA. view more
CREDIT: KIM RAFF
BOZEMAN, Montana (January 19, 2021) - A four-year study recently published in Ecology and Evolution concludes that the fungal disease, white-nose syndrome, poses a severe threat to many western North American bats.
Since it was first detected in 2006, white-nose syndrome has killed millions of bats in eastern and central North America. The spread of the fungal pathogen that causes white-nose syndrome in hibernating bats has reached several western U.S. states, mostly likely through bat-to-bat spread, and is presently threatening western species.
Bats with white-nose syndrome have fungus growing on their nose and wings, as the name implies, but the fungal infection also triggers a higher frequency of arousals from hibernation. Each arousal involves an increase in body temperature from as low as near freezing (when bats use torpor) to an active mammalian body temperature (~98?F or 38?C), which uses a significant amount of energy. Bats have limited fat stored for the winter, and if this is used up before the end of winter, death by starvation occurs.
The researchers' aim was to provide managers with information on which western bat species may suffer high mortality and extinction risk if infected with the disease. To do so they combined an unprecedented field data collection effort with a mechanistic model that explains how energy is consumed during hibernation and how the causal fungus impacts this energy consumption. By comparing their new knowledge of how long bats infected with white-nose syndrome could hibernate against the duration of winter that they would need to hibernate with the disease, the authors predicted survival outcomes for each species. If a bat did not have sufficient energy to live beyond the duration of winter the simulation recorded a mortality.
Three years of intensive fieldwork resulted in 946 bat captures (all released after measuring). Bat energetic measurements paired with hibernaculum environmental data were gathered for nine species that were sampled at eight sites scattered throughout the West (see Figure A). The researchers then assessed how the arrival of white-nose syndrome might affect hibernation energy use, and subsequently each species' ability to survive hibernation with the disease. Combining data on the host, the environment they select for hibernation, and how the pathogen grows at different temperature and humidity conditions the authors simulated how many days infected populations could hibernate under field conditions.
The study revealed there are white-nose syndrome threats to all the small Myotis species examined, including M. ciliolabrum (western small-footed bat), M. evotis (long-eared bat), M. lucifugus (little brown bat), M. thysanodes (fringed myotis), and M. volans (long-legged bat), as well as Perimyotis subflavus (tricolored bat). In comparison, larger species like M. velifer (cave bat), Corynorhinus townsendii (Townsend's big-eared bat) and Eptesicus fuscus (big brown bat) are predicted to be less impacted. Further analysis showed body mass (and relatedly body-fat as these attributes are correlated) as well as hibernaculum water vapor deficit (i.e. relative humidity) explained over half the variation observed in bat survival.
Dr. Catherine Haase, now Assistant Professor of Biology at Austin Peay State University and the study's lead author said: "Our results indicate the need to take a holistic view on conservation, as it is not just one thing that determines survival from white-nose syndrome, but rather the combination of bat, environment, and disease variables."
All of the western bat species studied were insectivores, meaning they prey on insects, including those that are pests to agricultural crops. In addition to providing valuable ecosystem services, they are incredibly fascinating species, from their ability to echolocate to their unique immune system.
Dr. Sarah Olson, Wildlife Conservation Society Health Program co-author and project Principle Investigator said: "This study demonstrates the value of collecting baseline data to pre-emptively understand a threat posed by a wildlife disease, like white-nose syndrome, to western bats, so that more proactive conservation measures can be taken to protect these species. Here, an all hands on deck approach is needed. Western states can take steps now to put protections in place before anticipated severe declines are observed, like reducing habitat loss and restricting access to hibernacula, as well as investing in research and surveillance."
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The study was funded by an award from the Strategic Environmental Research and Development Program(SERDP;) - the Department of Defense's environmental science and technology program that is executed in partnership with the Department of Energy and the Environmental Protection Agency. The research involved a consortium of partners including Texas Tech University, Montana State University, Massey University in New Zealand, Wildlife Conservation Society Canada, Conservation Science Partners and the Wildlife Conservation Society.
About the WCS (Wildlife Conservation Society)
The Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) is a US non-profit, tax-exempt, private organization established in 1895 that saves wildlife and wild places by understanding critical issues, crafting science-based solutions, and taking conservation actions that benefit nature and humanity. With more than a century of experience, long-term commitments in dozens of landscapes, presence in more than 60 nations, and experience helping to establish over 150 protected areas across the globe, WCS has amassed the biological knowledge, cultural understanding and partnerships to ensure that vibrant, wild places and wildlife thrive alongside local communities. Working with local communities and organizations, that knowledge is applied to address species, habitat and ecosystem management issues critical to improving the quality of life of poor rural people whose livelihoods depend on the direct utilization of natural resources. WCS was the first conservation organization with a dedicated team of wildlife veterinarians and other health professionals deployed around the world. The WCS Health Program is central to delivering on our mission to save wildlife and wild places around the globe. Wildlife, livestock, and human diseases will likely have a significant impact on the future development of sustainable land uses, protected areas, transboundary natural resource management, other biodiversity conservation approaches, and livelihood opportunities in many of the landscapes and seascapes where we work. Our work at the interface of wildlife, domestic animal, and human health has demonstrated that a One Health approach can build new constituencies for conservation and strengthen existing ones, while mitigating a key threat to conservation. Today, WCS Health Programs are globally recognized for excellence in zoological and wildlife medicine, pathology, and global health conservation initiatives. Visit: newsroom.wcs.org Follow: @WCSNewsroom. For more information: 347-840-1242.
About Austin Peay State University
Austin Peay State University (APSU; apsu.edu) is a moderately-sized state university located in middle Tennessee. APSU serves a large population of diverse students with several degree options at the associates, bachelor's, master's and doctoral levels. Many of these degrees can be pursued on campus and online. APSU is home to the state's only Center of Excellence for Field Biology, which enables students to work with professional field biologists in the study of mammals, insects, fish, plants and more.
About WCS Canada Wildlife Conservation Society (WCS) Canada was incorporated as a conservation organization in Canada in 2004. The mission of WCS Canada is to conserve wildlife and wild places by understanding the issues, developing science-based solutions, and working with others to carry out conservation actions across Canada. WCS Canada is distinguished from other environmental organizations through their role in generating science through field and applied research, and by using results to encourage collaboration among scientific communities, organizations and policy makers to achieve conservation results.
About TTU
A new era of excellence is dawning at Texas Tech University as it stands on the cusp of being one of the nation's premier research institutions. Research and enrollment numbers are at record levels, which cement Texas Tech's commitment to attracting and retaining quality students. In fall 2020, the university achieved a goal more than a decade in the making, reaching a total student population of more than 40,000. In 2018, the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education again placed Texas Tech among its top doctoral universities in the nation in the "Very High Research Activity" category. Texas Tech is one of 94 public institutions nationally and 131 overall to achieve this prestigious recognition. Quality students need top-notch faculty. Texas Tech is home to a diverse, highly revered pool of educators who excel in teaching, research and service. The university strives to foster an environment that celebrates student accomplishment above all else. Texas Tech is large enough to provide the best in facilities and academics but prides itself on being able to focus on each student individually.
The momentum for excellence at Texas Tech has never been greater.
About MSU
Montana State University is a public university located in Bozeman, Montana. It was founded in 1893 as the state's land-grant institution and prides itself on its tripartite mission of excellence in teaching and learning, research and creative projects and outreach and service. With an enrollment of more than 15,600 students, MSU is the largest university in the state. It is also the largest research university in Montana and the largest research and development entity of any kind in Montana, with annual research expenditures typically exceeding $100 million annually. Through its colleges, MSU offers baccalaureate degrees in more than 50 fields, master's degrees in more than 40 fields, and doctoral degrees in approximately 20 fields. To learn more, visit http://www.montana.edu/.
About Massey U
Massey University is New Zealand's largest and most influential educational institution with around 32,500 students. It calls itself New Zealand's defining university because its areas of specialized teaching and world-class research reflect what New Zealand and New Zealanders are best known for - agrifood innovation and the associated disciplines such as public health, animal welfare, farming and food technology, design, creative arts, social sciences, and business. It has five colleges (faculties), around 3000 full-time equivalent staff and the nation's largest university-based distance education program, allowing students to study from anywhere in the world.
About CSP
Conservation Science Partners (CSP; csp-inc.org) is a nonprofit scientific collective established to meet the analytical and research needs of diverse stakeholders in conservation outcomes on public and private lands. The mission of CSP is to apply human ingenuity to the preservation of species, populations, and ecosystems using scientific principles, innovative approaches, and lasting partnerships with conservation practitioners. CSP connects the best minds in conservation science to solve environmental problems in a comprehensive, flexible, and service-oriented manner. The core capabilities of CSP span a wide spectrum of geospatial and statistical techniques, from custom ecological and environmental data development (GIS and remote sensing based) to advanced analyses of landscape patterns and changes at multiple spatial and temporal scales.
Study identifies a nonhuman primate model that mimics severe COVID-19 similar to humans
New research published in The American Journal of Pathology suggests that aged African green monkeys may be suitable models for the study of severe forms of COVID-19
IMAGE: ACUTE RESPIRATORY DISTRESS SYNDROME (ARDS) IN SARS-COV-2 INFECTED AGED, AFRICAN GREEN MONKEY. A. RADIOGRAPHIC CHANGES NOTED FOLLOWING A RAPID CLINICAL DECLINE WITHIN A 24-HOUR PERIOD. B. MICROSCOPIC FINDINGS SHOWING DIFFUSE... view more
CREDIT: THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PATHOLOGY
Philadelphia, January 19, 2021 - Aged, wild-caught African green monkeys exposed to the SARS-CoV-2 virus developed acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) with clinical symptoms similar to those observed in the most serious human cases of COVID-19, report researchers in The American Journal of Pathology, published by Elsevier. This is the first study to show that African green monkeys can develop severe clinical disease after SARS-CoV-2 infection, suggesting that they may be useful models for the study of COVID-19 in humans.
"Animal models greatly enhance our understanding of diseases. The lack of an animal model for severe manifestations of COVID-19 has hampered our understanding of this form of the disease," explained lead investigator Robert V. Blair, DVM, PhD, Dip ACVP, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Covington, LA, USA. "If aged green monkeys prove to be a consistent model of severe COVID-19, studying the disease pathobiology in them would improve our understanding of the disease and allow testing treatment options."
The researchers exposed four aged rhesus macaques and four aged African green monkeys to SARS-CoV-2. Older animals (13-16 years of age) were specifically chosen to see if they would develop the severe form of the disease that is observed more frequently in elderly individuals. All of the monkeys developed a spectrum of disease from mild to severe COVID-19. A day after routine screening found no remarkable symptoms, two of the African green monkeys developed rapid breathing that quickly progressed to severe respiratory distress. Radiographic studies found the two African green monkeys had widespread opacities in the lungs, in stark contrast to images taken the day before, highlighting the rapid development of the disease. Such opacities are a hallmark of ARDS in humans.
The African green monkeys that progressed to severe disease had notable increases in plasma cytokines that are compatible with cytokine storm, which is thought to underlie the development of ARDS in some patients. All four African green monkeys had elevated levels of interferon gamma; the two that had progressed to ARDS had the highest plasma concentration. Plasma cytokines were not increased in the rhesus macaques. Dr. Blair suggested that elevated interferon gamma could be explored as a potential predictive biomarker for advanced disease in patients and a possible therapeutic target.
Dr. Blair said, "Our data suggest that both rhesus monkeys and African green monkeys are capable of modeling mild manifestations of SARS-CoV-2 infection, and aged African green monkeys may additionally be capable of modeling severe disease manifestations, including ARDS."
HIV/AIDS WAS FIRST DISCOVERED IN GREEN MONKEYS IN AFRICA
IMAGE: BEANS IN THE UC DAVIS BREEDING PROGRAM, WHOSE VARIETIES HAVE BEEN SELECTED TO COMBINE EXCELLENT CULINARY WITH IMPROVED YIELDS AND RESISTANCE TO BEAN COMMON MOSAIC VIRUS. view more
CREDIT: TRAVIS PARKER
January 20, 2021 - Plant breeders are constantly working to develop new bean varieties to meet the needs and desires of the food industry. But not everyone wants the same thing.
Many consumers desire heirloom-type beans, which have great culinary quality and are visually appealing. On the other hand, farmers desire beans with better disease resistance and higher yield potential.
The bean varieties that farmers want to grow are usually different than the varieties consumers want to purchase. Until now.
Travis Parker, a plant scientist at University of California, Davis, has worked with a team of researchers to release five new varieties of dry beans that combine the most desirable traits.
"Our new beans combine the best of both worlds for farmers and consumers," says Parker. "They combine the better qualities of heirloom-type beans with the better qualities of commercial types."
Heirloom-type beans often represent older bean types that are known for culinary qualities and seed patterns. These are highly desired by consumers. Heirloom types often fetch a higher market value than other beans.
Commercial dry beans often have higher yields, shorter maturity times, and improved disease resistance. While they possess qualities desirable to producers, they don't fetch as high of a market price compared to their heirloom counterparts.
"Our goal was to improve field characteristics of the heirloom beans without losing culinary characteristics," said Parker. "We have an interest in higher-value varieties and want them to grow well."
Farmers growing the heirloom dry beans often sell the beans to health-conscious consumers or high-end restaurants. This sale often leads to a higher price point. However, these beans are prone to disease and don't perform well in the field.
"We know that existing heirloom beans don't usually do well in terms of yield," said Parker. "Breeding beans for high yields is a major improvement for farmers. The new varieties are high-yielding, heat-tolerant, and are also resistant to bean common mosaic virus."
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A comparison of the heirloom variety "Tiger's Eye" (left, with virus symptoms) and the newly released "UC Tiger's Eye" (right, healthy leaves). These varieties have similar culinary qualities, but UC Tiger's Eye is resistant to the common mosaic virus and has higher yields.
Incorporating disease resistance was essential when developing the new bean varieties. Bean common mosaic virus is a well-known problem that is hard to control in the field.
"The only real effective means to handle the virus is through genetic resistance," explains Parker.
The new varieties, such as UC Sunrise, satisfy the need for farmers to have a bean that is disease resistant while also yielding 50% more than heirloom types. In addition, the beans do not take as long to grow between planting and harvest.
Commercial and heirloom beans come from the same species, but they are in different market classes. The heirloom varieties are bred with intimate knowledge of what tastes good and what works well in the kitchen.
"In recent decades, there has been less attention paid to consumer desires during the bean breeding process," says Parker. "There are more layers between the breeder and the consumer. We are trying to make sure to keep consumers in mind while incorporating qualities that are beneficial to the farmer."
With consumer desires in mind, the research team used cross-pollination to breed plants with key characteristics they selected. As Parker and the team continued the breeding process, they performed taste tests to ensure the beans met the level of culinary quality expected of an heirloom-type bean, in terms of flavor and visual appeal.
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A detailed view of UC Sunrise, one of the new varieties the heirloom-like dry bean. The colorful pattern is desirable to consumers.
This research was supported by the Clif Bar Family Foundation, Lundberg Family Farms, the United States Department of Agriculture Organic Agriculture Research & Extension Initiative, and the United States Department of Agriculture Western Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education program.
American Society of Agronomy, Soil Science Society of America, Crop Science Society of America: Collectively, these Societies represent more than 12,000 individual members around the world. Members are researchers and professionals in the areas of growing our world's food supply while protecting our environment. Together we work toward solutions to advance scientific knowledge in the areas of agronomy, crop science, and soil science.
IMAGE: DAMON MATTHEWS: "THE WIDE RANGE OF CARBON BUDGET ESTIMATES IN THE LITERATURE HAS CONTRIBUTED TO BOTH CONFUSION AND INACTION IN CLIMATE POLICY CIRCLES. " view more
CREDIT: CONCORDIA UNIVERSITY
Just how close are the world's countries to achieving the Paris Agreement target of keeping climate change limited to a 1.5°C increase above pre-industrial levels?
It's a tricky question with a complex answer. One approach is to use the remaining carbon budget to gauge how many more tonnes of carbon dioxide we can still emit and have a chance of staying under the target laid out by the 2015 international accord. However, estimates of the remaining carbon budget have varied considerably in previous studies because of inconsistent approaches and assumptions used by researchers.
The researchers estimate that between 230 and 440 billion more tonnes of CO2 from 2020 onwards can be emitted into the atmosphere and still provide a reasonable chance of limiting global warming to 1.5°C. This is the same as five to 10 years of current emission levels.
"The wide range of carbon budget estimates in the literature has contributed to both confusion and inaction in climate policy circles," explains Matthews, the Concordia Research Chair in Climate Science and Sustainability. "This is the first time we have gone through all the uncertainties and included them in a single estimate."
Uncertainties included
Matthews identifies five key uncertain parameters affecting the remaining carbon budget.
The first is the amount of observed warming that has occurred to date; the second is the amount of CO2 that has been emitted over the past 150 years; the third uncertainty is the amount of warming we are experiencing that is due to CO2 vs. non-CO2 greenhouse gas emissions; fourth is the future non-CO2 contributions to warming; and last is the amount of warming that has not yet occurred as a result of emissions already in the atmosphere.
Using a new set of equations, the researchers were able to relate these parameters to each other and calculate a unified distribution of the remaining carbon budget.
The 440 billion tonnes of CO2 is a median estimate, however, giving us a 50/50 chance of meeting the 1.5°C target. The researchers' uncertainty range runs from 230 billion tonnes before net-zero, which would give us a 67 per cent chance of meeting the target, to 670 billion tonnes for a one-in-three chance.
These numbers are based on accounting for geophysical uncertainties (those related to scientific understanding of the climate system), but not socioeconomic ones (those relating to human decisions and socioeconomic systems). The decisions humans make in the near-term matter greatly and have the potential to either increase or decrease the size of the remaining carbon budget. In the new framework, these decisions could add (or remove) as much as 170 billion tonnes of CO2 to the median carbon budget estimate.
A window of opportunity
The COVID-19 pandemic has presented humans with an opportunity, Matthews argues. The year 2020 experienced a noticeable drop in emissions from 2019 due in large part to reduced human mobility. If we are able to direct recovery investments in ways that would continue this decrease (rather than allowing emissions to rebound) we would greatly increase our chances of remaining under the 1.5°C Paris Agreement target.
Another source of cautious optimism lies with the incoming Biden administration in the United States, which has made climate change a priority.
"I am optimistic that having national leadership in the US that can mobilize efforts on climate change will make a big difference over the coming years," Matthews adds. "The momentum is shifting in the right direction, but it is still not happening fast enough."
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Counting elephants from space
Satellite images processed with the help of computer algorithms are a promising new tool for surveying endangered wildlife.
IMAGE: ELEPHANTS IN WOODLAND AS SEEN FROM SPACE. GREEN RECTANGLES SHOW ELEPHANTS DETECTED BY THE ALGORITHM, RED RECTANGLES SHOW ELEPHANTS VERIFIED BY HUMANS. view more
For the first time, scientists have successfully used satellite cameras coupled with deep learning to count animals in complex geographical landscapes, taking conservationists an important step forward in monitoring populations of endangered species.
For this research, the satellite Worldview 3 used high-resolution imagery to capture African elephants moving through forests and grasslands. The automated system detected animals with the same accuracy as humans are able to achieve.
The algorithm that enabled the detection process was created by Dr Olga Isupova, a computer scientist at the University of Bath in the UK. The project was a collaboration with the UK's University of Oxford and the University of Twente in the Netherlands.
Dr Isupova said the new surveying technique allows vast areas of land to be scanned in a matter of minutes, offering a much-needed alternative to human observers counting individual animals from low-flying airplanes. As it sweeps across the land, a satellite can collect over 5,000 km² of imagery every few minutes, eliminating the risk of double counting. Where necessary (for instance, when there is cloud coverage), the process can be repeated the next day, on the satellite's next revolution of Earth.
The population of African elephants has nose-dived over the past century, mainly due to poaching and habitat fragmentation. With only 40,000-50,000 elephants left in the wild, the species is classified as endangered.
"Accurate monitoring is essential if we're to save the species," said Dr Isupova. "We need to know where the animals are and how many there are."
Satellite monitoring eliminates the risk of disturbing animals during data collection and ensures humans are not hurt in the counting process. It also makes it simpler to count animals moving from country to country, as satellites can orbit the planet without regard for border controls or conflict.
This study was not the first to use satellite imagery and algorithms to monitor species, but it was the first to reliably monitor animals moving through a heterogeneous landscape - that is, a backdrop that includes areas of open grassland, woodland and partial coverage.
"This type of work has been done before with whales, but of course the ocean is all blue, so counting is a lot less challenging," said Dr Isupova. "As you can imagine, a heterogeneous landscape makes it much hard to identify animals."
The researchers believe their work demonstrates the potential of technology to support conservationists in their plight to protect biodiversity and to slow the progress of the sixth mass extinction - the ongoing extinction event triggered by human activity.
"We need to find new state-of-the-art systems to help researchers gather the data they need to save species under threat," said Dr Isupova.
African elephants were chosen for this study for good reason - they are the largest land animal and therefore the easiest to spot. However, Dr Isupova is hopeful that it will soon be possible to detect far smaller species from space.
"Satellite imagery resolution increases every couple of years, and with every increase we will be able to see smaller things in greater detail," she said, adding: "Other researchers have managed to detect black albatross nests against snow. No doubt the contrast of black and white made it easier, but that doesn't change the fact that an albatross nest is one-eleventh the size of an elephant."
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The paper Using very?high?resolution satellite imagery and deep learning to detect and count African elephants in heterogeneous landscape is published in the Journal of Zoology.
The researchers involved in this project were Dr Olga Isupova from the University of Bath, Isla Duporge, Dr Steven Reece, and Professor David W. Macdonald from the University of Oxford, and Dr Tiejun Wang from the University of Twente.
Protected areas vulnerable to growing emphasis on food security
New study shows croplands are prevalent in protected areas, challenging their efficacy in meeting conservation goals
IMAGE: THE IMAGE OF A FEMALE ASIAN ELEPHANT IN A TEA PLANTATION ON THE FRINGES OF KAZIRANGA NATIONAL PARK IN INDIA, BORDERING THE EASTERN HIMALAYA BIODIVERSITY HOTSPOT, EXEMPLIFIES POTENTIAL IMPACTS TO ENDANGERED SPECIES... view more
CREDIT: IMAGE COURTESY OF SASHANKA BARBARUAH-WILDLIFE TRUST OF INDIA
Protected areas are critical to mitigating extinction of species; however, they may also be in conflict with efforts to feed the growing human population. A new study shows that 6% of all global terrestrial protected areas are already made up of cropland, a heavily modified habitat that is often not suitable for supporting wildlife. Worse, 22% of this cropland occurs in areas supposedly enjoying the strictest levels of protection, the keystone of global biodiversity protection efforts.
This finding was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences by researchers at the University of Maryland's National Socio-Environmental Synthesis Center (SESYNC) and National Institute for Mathematical and Biological Synthesis ( NIMBioS ) at the University of Tennessee. In order to comprehensively examine global cropland impacts in
protected areas for the first time, the authors synthesized a number of remotely sensed cropland estimates and diverse socio-environmental datasets.
The persistence of many native species--particularly habitat specialists (species that depend on a narrow set of natural systems), rare, and threatened species--is incompatible with conversion of habitat to cropland, thus compromising the primary conservation goal of these protected areas. Guided by the needs of conservation end users, the researchers used methods that provide an important benchmark and reproducible methods for rapid monitoring of cropland in protected areas.
"Combining multiple remote sensing approaches with ongoing inventory and survey work will allow us to better understand the impacts of conversion on different taxa," says lead author Varsha Vijay, a conservation scientist who was a postdoctoral fellow at SESYNC while working on the study. "Cropland in biodiversity hotspots warrant particularly careful monitoring. In many of these regions, expanding cropland to meet increasing food demand exposes species to both habitat loss and increased human-wildlife conflict," she adds.
Countries with higher population density, lower income inequality, and higher agricultural suitability tend to have more cropland in their protected areas. Even though cropland in protected areas is most dominant in mid-northern latitudes, the tradeoffs between biodiversity and food security may be most acute in the tropics and subtropics. This increased tradeoff is due to higher levels of species richness coinciding with a high proportion of cropland-impacted protected areas.
"The findings of this study emphasize the need to move beyond area-based conservation targets and develop quantitative measures to improve conservation outcomes in protected areas, especially in areas of high food insecurity and biodiversity" says Lucas Joppa, chief environmental officer of Microsoft, who has published numerous papers on the topic of protected area effectiveness but who was not an author on the study. 2021 is a historic "Year of Impact," when many countries and international agencies are developing new decadal targets for biodiversity conservation and protected areas. As countries aim to meet these goals and the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals, there is an increasing need to understand synergies and tradeoffs between these goals in order to ensure a more sustainable future. Studies such as these offer insights for protected area planning and management, particularly as future protected areas expand into an agriculturally dominated matrix. Though the study reveals many challenges for the future, it also reveals potential scenarios for restoration in mid-northern latitudes and for cooperation between conservation and food programs in regions with both high levels of food insecurity and biodiversity.
"Despite clear connections between food production and biodiversity, conservation and development planning are still often treated as independent processes," says study co-author Paul Armsworth from the University of Tennessee. "Rapid advances in data availability provide exciting opportunities for bringing the two processes together," adds Vijay.
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The paper, "Pervasive cropland in protected areas highlight trade-offs between conservation and food security," Varsha Vijay and Paul Armsworth, appears in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. doi:10.1073/pnas.2010121118 https://www.pnas.org/content/118/4/e2010121118
The study is based upon work funded by the National Science Foundation (Award No.: DBI- 1639145).
Study shows how network of marine protected areas could help safeguard Antarctic penguins
New research led by BirdLife International, the University of East Anglia (UEA) and British Antarctic Survey highlights how a proposed network of marine protected areas could help safeguard some of the most important areas at sea for breeding Antarctic penguins.
The findings, published today in the journal Frontiers in Marine Science, show that if all the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) proposed around Antarctica were adopted, the permanent conservation of high-quality areas for a flagship group of Antarctic wildlife - the penguins - would increase by between 49% and 100% depending on the species.
Penguins are often considered an indicator species whose populations reflect the state of the surrounding marine environment. However, many vital penguin habitats remain unprotected, leaving them susceptible to human-related threats such as pollution, overfishing and climate change.
The study used a new approach based on colony location, population estimates, and tracking data, to identify globally important areas for penguin species around Antarctica, pinpointing 63 key sites.
Known as Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas (IBAs), they are used by at least 1% of a species' global population. They represent important foraging grounds, surrounding breeding colonies of several thousands of individuals when penguins congregate to raise their chicks.
The international team also examined krill fishery activities over the last 50 years and found that while its range of operation has contracted, a consistently disproportionate amount of krill is being harvested within the globally important areas for penguins compared to the total area in which the fishery operates. The results align with other studies which show that krill fisheries might be directly competing with penguins for crucial foraging resources.
"Our findings provide critical evidence about the location and relevance of some of the most important areas globally for chick-rearing adult penguins breeding in Antarctica and nearby islands," said lead author Dr Jonathan Handley, of Birdlife International.
"Over the past five decades, krill fisheries have concentrated into a small number of areas in Antarctic waters, some of which we identified as important penguin foraging grounds. This poses a likely threat for several penguin colonies, especially when they are rearing chicks."
To control the increasing commercial interest in Antarctic fisheries and particularly krill resources, an international convention was established in 1982, governed by the Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) - an international convention comprised of 25 Member states, together with the European Union.
The convention envisioned the creation of a network of MPAs around Antarctica since 2002, but since 2016 only two have been implemented. Three more have been under discussion for several years but members have not been able to agree on their formal designation.
Co-author Dr Aldina Franco, of UEA's School of Environmental Sciences, said the new study supports the adoption of the proposed MPA network: "Recent studies have shown that krill fisheries could be directly competing with penguins for critical food supplies. The proposed Marine Protected Area network, which has recognised go/no go areas for krill fisheries, can help guarantee that enough krill is available for penguins."
Marie-Morgane Rouyer, who jointly led the research while a Masters student at UEA, added: "Marine resources need to be managed in a sustainable way if we are to guarantee the existence of these emblematic penguin species in the future."
If all proposed MPAs for Antarctica are adopted then an average of 80% of the important areas for penguin conservation would be within an MPA. This highlights the importance of the proposed network, which ultimately could benefit not only Antarctic penguins, but some of the most unique wildlife on Earth.
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The research was funded by the Pew Charitable Trusts.
'Marine Important Bird and Biodiversity Areas for penguins in Antarctica, targets for conservation action', Jonathan Handley, Marie-Morgane Rouyer, Elizabeth J Pearmain, Victoria Warwick-Evans, Katharina Teschke, Jefferson Hinke, Heather Lynch, Louise Emmerson, Colin Southwell, Gary Griffith, Cesar A Cardenas, Aldina M Franco, Philip Trathan, Maria P Dias, is published in Frontiers in Marine Science.
