New data reveal US space economy's output is shrinking—an economist explains in 3 charts

by Jay L. Zagorsky, The Conversation

The ‘space economy’ isn’t just rockets and space suits – satellite data, radio and TV are 

all part of a broadly-defined space economy. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech

The space industry has changed dramatically since the Apollo program put men on the

moon in the late 1960s

Today, over 50 years later, private companies are sending tourists to the edge of space and building lunar landers. NASA is bringing together 27 countries to peacefully explore the moon and beyond, and it is using the James Webb Space Telescope to peer back in time. Private companies are playing a much larger role in space than they ever have before, though NASA and other government interests continue to drive scientific advances.

I'm a macroeconomist who's interested in understanding how these space-related innovations and the growing role of private industry have affected the economy. Recently, the U.S. government started tracking the space economy's size. These data can tell us the size of the space-related industry, whether its outputs come mainly from government or private enterprise, and how they have been growing relative to the economy at large.

Companies like SpaceX, Blue Origin and Virgin Galactic made up over 80% of the U.S. space economy in 2021. The government held a 19% share of space spending, up from 16% in 2012—mostly thanks to an increase in military spending.

Ways to measure the space economy

On July 14, 2023, India launched a rocket as part of its Chandrayaan-3 mission to put a lander and rover on the south pole of the moon.

There are many ways to measure economic success in space.

One way is the economic impact. The U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, which tracks the nation's gross domestic product and other indicators, recently began to monitor the space economy and published figures from 2012 to 2021. The Bureau of Economic Analysis calculated the impact of space using both broad and narrow definitions.

Credit: The Conversation

The broad definition comprises four parts: things used in space, like rocket ships; items supporting space travel, like launch pads; things getting direct input from space, like cell phone GPS chips; and space education, like planetariums and college astrophysics departments.

In 2021, the broad definition showed that total space-related sales, or what the government calls gross output, was over US$210 billion, before adjusting for inflation. That number represents about 0.5% of the whole U.S. economy's total gross output.

The Bureau of Economic Analysis also has a narrow definition that excludes satellite television, satellite radio and space education. The difference in definitions is important because back in 2012 these three categories represented one-quarter of all space spending. However, by 2021, they only represented one-eighth of spending because many people had switched from watching satellite TV to streaming movies and shows over the internet

Space's share of the economy

A closer look at the data shows that space's share of the U.S. economy is shrinking.

Using the broad definition and adjusting for inflation, the relative size of the space economy fell by about one-fifth from 2012 to 2021. This is because sales of space-related items—everything from rockets to satellite TV—have barely changed since 2015.

Credit: The Conversation

Using the narrow definition also shows the space economy is getting relatively smaller. From 2012 to 2021, the space sector's inflation-adjusted gross output grew on average 3% a year, compared with 5% for the overall economy. This suggests space is not growing as fast as other economic sectors.

Space jobs

The number of jobs created by the space economy has also declined. In 2021, 360,000 people worked full- or part-time space-related jobs in the private sector, down from 372,000 about a decade earlier, according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis.

Credit: The Conversation

The Bureau of Economic Analysis could not track all space-related government jobs since spy agencies and parts of the military don't provide much information. Nevertheless, it has tracked some since 2018. The military's Space Force, which is the smallest branch, adds about 9,000 workers. NASA has about 18,000 employees, which is half of its 1960s peak.

Combining these government workers plus all private workers results in just under 400,000 people. To give some perspective, Amazon's U.S. workforce is over twice as big and Walmart's is four times bigger than reported U.S. space-related employment.

Growing competition in space

The U.S. has long dominated the space economy, especially in terms of government spending.

The U.S. government spent a little more than $40 billion in 2017, compared with about $3.5 billion spent by Japan and less than $2 billion by Russia.

Moreover, most of the top private space companies are based in the U.S., led by Boeing, SpaceX and Raytheon, which gives the U.S. a leg up in continuing to play a leading role with the rockets, satellites and other stuff needed to operate in space.

The U.S. also published more than twice the amount of space research in 2017 as its next nearest rival—China.

But China is catching up and has narrowed the gap in recent years as top Chinese officials decided success in space is a national priority. Their goal is reportedly to surpass the U.S. as the dominant space power by 2045. China recently put a large space station called the Tiangong into orbit and aims to put people on the moon.

China's not the only one joining the 21st century space race. India is expanding its space economy rapidly, with 140 space-tech startups. India launched a rocket on July 14, 2023, designed to put a lander and rover on the moon. And the European Space Agency's Euclid spacecraft plans to map parts of the universe to study dark matter. The ESA released the craft's first test images at the end of July 2023.

The U.S. has a strong foothold in space. But whether it can maintain its lead—as the space race moves into a new frontier of space mining and missions to Mars—remains to be seen.

This article is republished from The Conversation under a Creative Commons license. Read the original article.

Kenya to launch first operational satellite next week

To lead in space, America must lead in space collaboration

SPACE RACE 2.0 CAPITALI$M IN SPACE

The new era of space competition is far more complex, but government agencies have yet to coalesce around a common campaign plan, a leading government adviser argues
Astronaut Rick Mastracchio participates in a mission on the International Space Station in 2007. | NASA via Getty Images


By STEVE ISAKOWITZ
11/25/2020 

Next year will mark 60 years since President John F. Kennedy announced the United States would send a man safely to the moon and back. A more ambitious objective — sustainable exploration and development of the moon, our solar system and beyond — currently faces America’s leaders, albeit within a more complex space landscape than the U.S.-Soviet space race.

Space is an increasingly crowded, democratized and contested environment. More than 60 countries now have space budgets, and more than 70 own or operate satellites in orbit. Myriad private organizations are launching satellites, including many smaller satellites that nevertheless have significant capabilities. Government agencies are vying for jurisdiction over space issues. Amid all this, Russia and China are investing in capabilities to threaten U.S. and international satellites.

The crowding of space reflects its enormous potential, but also necessitates action to ensure its sustainability. In the next presidential term, the U.S. will face high-level decisions on critical space policy issues with long-lasting implications. Through our role as a nonpartisan, nonprofit partner to the entire U.S. space enterprise, The Aerospace Corporation has published a comprehensive Space Agenda 2021 outlook for these issues. We work with all organizations involved in space to solve their hardest technical and strategic problems. Our success is measured by the degree to which the U.S. leads in delivering great accomplishments in the global space ecosystem.

Strategies that earned the U.S. space preeminence in the 20th century won’t keep us ahead in this century. We need new methods to achieve this. At a high level, we recommend an emphasis on stronger collaboration across the space enterprise to realize this potential and address those challenges.

Streamline government collaboration

As commercial space efforts expand and diversify, government must ensure safe and responsible behavior in space. Several federal agencies exert some space policy jurisdiction, but responsibility remains fuzzy on emerging regulatory issues, such as protecting our satellites, ensuring spaceflight safety, regulating emergent space business applications and preserving our world and worlds we explore in the future.

The U.S. should establish a national approach to space safety with clear lanes of authority and technically informed regulations. We must especially lead in developing space traffic management safety norms and standards for space operators to mitigate the growing risks of orbital debris.

To promote innovation, the U.S. government must also exchange traditionally siloed approaches for greater agency interdependence. The current National Space Strategy advocates a “whole-of-government” approach with agencies working to maximize resources under a shared mission. Translating this policy commitment into practical reality will give the U.S. government and private industry a real edge in fielding advanced space capabilities.

Strengthen defense space partnerships

Streamlined U.S. jurisdiction on space issues may strengthen defense space partnerships — a critical priority in the Pentagon’s Defense Space Strategy as Russia and China remain formidable threats. The U.S. and its close partners comprise 11 of the world’s 15 largest space budgets while operating two-thirds of all active, orbiting satellites. However, with multiple U.S. agencies working on defense space, some allies are expressing frustration that their space communities don’t have a clear path to collaborating or know with whom to engage, while information classification frequently stymies collaboration.

U.S. leaders should consider involving more, and new, partners in space exercises, lowering classification levels and improving information sharing with allies. Strengthening defense space partnerships will require higher tolerance for risk and deviations from traditional practices. It is encouraging that key U.S. defense leaders want to address these barriers.
Deepen private space partnerships

The U.S. government is no longer the sole driver for space innovation. It increasingly recognizes the advantages of relying on the private space sector while focusing its own attention on fostering a healthy market. The U.S. government should prioritize commercial capabilities and contracted services, even if key capabilities may remain government-owned and operated. Continued research and development will keep the U.S. at the forefront of space activities, promote domestic businesses and encourage new innovators to enter the market.

Private space activity also presents emerging issues for which rigid regulatory frameworks may be ineffective. Space investors and innovators seek a balance between regulatory flexibility to accommodate new ideas and reasonable levels of certainty that allow for longer-term investment planning and space sustainability. Striking this balance is a priority.
Preserve investment in space

Finally, leaders should recognize how frequent policy shifts can compromise major NASA and national security space missions, which take many years to deliver the game-changing projects that draw people to space and make a difference for the nation and the world. Major shifts should be made only with serious deliberation.

Partnerships between the federal government, the private sector and the international space community have delivered significant return on investment to the American public. This collaboration can take us to amazing places — in space and here on Earth. We must accelerate and gain momentum to maintain global leadership in space.

Steve Isakowitz is president and CEO of The Aerospace Corporation, which operates a federally funded research and development center for the U.S. space enterprise. He previously served as president of Virgin Galactic and as space programs branch chief at the White House Office of Management and Budget.

WILL SHE WEAR A HIJAB IN SPACE

Saudi Arabia To Send Its First Female Astronaut Into Space

The astronauts "will join the crew of the AX-2 space mission" and the space flight will "launch from the USA", the agency said.

Agence France-Presse

Updated: February 14, 2023

Rayyana Barnawi will visit the International Space Station later this year.

Riyadh, Saudi Arabia:

Saudi Arabia will send its first ever woman astronaut on a space mission later this year, state media has reported, in the latest move to revamp the kingdom's ultra-conservative image.

Rayyana Barnawi will join fellow Saudi male astronaut Ali Al-Qarni on a mission to the International Space Station (ISS) "during the second quarter of 2023", the official Saudi Press Agency said on Sunday.

The astronauts "will join the crew of the AX-2 space mission" and the space flight will "launch from the USA", the agency said.

The oil-rich country will be following in the footsteps of the neighbouring United Arab Emirates which in 2019 became the first Arab country to send one of its citizens into space.

At the time, astronaut Hazzaa al-Mansoori spent eight days on the ISS. Another fellow Emirati, Sultan al-Neyadi, will also make a voyage later this month.

Nicknamed the "Sultan of Space", 41-year-old Neyadi will become the first Arab astronaut to spend six months in space when he blasts off for the ISS aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket.

Gulf monarchies have been seeking to diversify their energy-reliant economies through a plethora of projects.

Saudi de facto leader Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman has also been trying to shake off the kingdom's austere image through a push for reforms.

Since his rise to power in 2017, women have been allowed to drive and to travel abroad without a male guardian, and their proportion in the workforce has more than doubled since 2016, from 17 percent to 37 percent.

Saudi Arabia's foray into space is not the first, however.

In 1985, Saudi royal Prince Sultan bin Salman bin Abdulaziz, an airforce pilot, took part in a US-organised space mission, becoming the first Arab Muslim to travel into space.

In 2018, Saudi Arabia set up a space programme and last year launched another to send astronauts into space, all part of Prince Salman's Vision 2030 agenda for economic diversification.

Axiom’s U.S.-Saudi Crew Approved for Private Mission to Space Station


The Ax-2 crew includes, from left, Peggy Whitson, John Shoffner, Ali AlQarni and Rayyanah Barnawi. (Axiom Space Photos)

POSTED ON  FEBRUARY 13, 2023 BY ALAN BOYLE

NASA and its international partners have approved the crew lineup for Axiom Space’s second privately funded mission to the International Space Station — a lineup that includes the first Saudi woman cleared to go into orbit.

Two of the former crew members — former NASA astronaut Peggy Whitson and John Shoffner, a Tennessee business executive, race car driver and aviator — had previously been announced.

They’ll be joined by Ali AlQarni and Rayyannah Barnawi, representing Saudi Arabia’s national astronaut program. Only one other Saudi citizen — Sultan bin Salman Al Saud, who flew on the space shuttle Discovery in 1985 — has ever been in space. The 10-day Axiom Space mission, known as Ax-2, is currently scheduled for this spring.

AlQarni, 31, is a Royal Saudi Air Force captain and fighter pilot, according to the Saudi Space Commission’s bio. Barnawi, 33, is a research laboratory specialist with nine years of experience in cancer stem cell research. Two other participants in the Saudi space program, Mariam Fardous and Ali AlGamdi, are being trained as backups.

The Saudi Space Commission says the Axiom Space mission “is an integral milestone of a comprehensive program aiming to train and qualify experienced Saudis to undertake human spaceflight, conduct scientific experiments, participate in international research, and future space-related missions contributing to the Kingdom’s Vision 2030.”

Whitson already has her name in space history books as the first female commander of the International Space Station and the record-holder for the longest cumulative time in space by a NASA astronaut. She retired from NASA’s astronaut corps in 2018 and joined Axiom Space soon afterward.

Ax2 will make her the first female commander of a private-sector space mission. She’ll be the only one of the four crew members with previous space experience.

“I’m honored to be heading back to the station for the fourth time, leading this talented Ax-2 crew on their first mission,” Whitson said today in a NASA news release. “This is a strong and cohesive team determined to conduct meaningful scientific research in space and inspire a new generation about the benefits of microgravity. It’s a testament to the power of science and discovery to unify and build international collaboration.”

Houston-based Axiom Space sent three millionaire investors into orbit last April under the command of a former NASA astronaut. That marked the first time a U.S. company organized a space station tour for paying customers, but the trip wasn’t totally unprecedented: Russia’s Roscosmos space agency has supported similar ISS trips for deep-pocketed spacefliers since 2001, and the Inspiration4 space effort executed a philanthropic orbital mission (which didn’t stop at the space station) in September 2021.

Like Axiom Space’s first mission, the Ax-2 mission will use SpaceX’s Falcon 9 rocket and Crew Dragon capsule to get the crew to and from the space station. The crew members for Ax-1 were each said to have paid a fare of roughly $55 million — and although the ticket price for Ax-2 hasn’t been announced, it’s likely to be in the same ballpark.

Axiom Space sees such missions as setting the stage for its own orbital outpost, which would start out as a module attached to the International Space Station and eventually become the core of a stand-alone commercial space station.

“Axiom Space’s second private astronaut mission to the International Space Station cements our mission of expanding access to space worldwide and supporting the growth of the low-Earth-orbit economy as we build Axiom Station,” Michael Suffredini, president and CEO of Axiom Space, said in a news release. “Ax-2 moves Axiom Space one step closer toward the realization of a commercial space station in low-Earth orbit and enables us to build on the legacy and achievements of the ISS, leveraging the benefits of microgravity to better life on Earth.”

New walking robot design could revolutionize how we build things in space

Peer-Reviewed Publication

FRONTIERS

Researchers have designed a state-of-the-art walking robot that could revolutionize large construction projects in space. They tested the feasibility of the robot for the in-space assembly of a 25m Large Aperture Space Telescope. They present their findings in Frontiers in Robotics and AI. A scaled-down prototype of the robot also showed promise for large construction applications on Earth.

Maintenance and servicing of large constructions are nowhere more needed than in space, where the conditions are extreme and human technology has a short lifespan. Extravehicular activities (activities done by an astronaut outside a spacecraft), robotics, and autonomous systems solutions have been useful for servicing and maintenance missions and have helped the space community conduct ground-breaking research on various space missions. Advancements in robotics and autonomous systems facilitate a multitude of in-space services. This includes, but is not limited to, manufacturing, assembly, maintenance, astronomy, earth observation, and debris removal.

With the countless risks involved, only relying on human builders is not enough, and current technologies are becoming outdated. 

“We need to introduce sustainable, futuristic technology to support the current and growing orbital ecosystem,” explained corresponding author Manu Nair, PhD candidate at the University of Lincoln.

“As the scale of space missions grows, there is a need for more extensive infrastructures in orbit. Assembly missions in space would hold one of the key responsibilities in meeting the increasing demand.” 

In their paper, Nair and his colleagues introduced an innovative, dexterous walking robotic system that can be used for in orbit assembly missions. As a use case, the researchers tested the robot for the assembly of a 25m Large Aperture Space Telescope (LAST).

Assembling telescopes in orbit

Ever since the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope and its successor, the James Webb Space Telescope, the space community has been continuously moving towards deploying newer and larger telescopes with larger apertures (the diameter of the light collecting region).

Assembling such telescopes, such as a 25m LAST, on Earth is not possible with our current launch vehicles due to their limited size. That is why larger telescopes ideally need to be assembled in space (or in orbit).

“The prospect of in-orbit commissioning of a LAST has fueled scientific and commercial interests in deep-space astronomy and Earth observation,” said Nair.

To assemble a telescope of that magnitude in space, we need the right tools: “Although conventional space walking robotic candidates are dexterous, they are constrained in maneuverability. Therefore, it is significant for future in-orbit walking robot designs to incorporate mobility features to offer access to a much larger workspace without compromising the dexterity.”

E-Walker robot

The researchers proposed a seven degrees-of-freedom fully dexterous end-over-end walking robot (a limbed robotic system that can move along a surface to different locations to perform tasks with seven degrees of motion capabilities), or, in short, an E-Walker.

They conducted an in-depth design engineering exercise to test the robot for its capabilities to efficiently assemble a 25m LAST in orbit. The robot was compared to the existing Canadarm2 and the European Robotic Arm on the International Space Station. Additionally, a scaled down prototype for Earth-analog testing was developed and another design engineering exercise performed. 

“Our analysis shows that the proposed innovative E-Walker design proves to be versatile and an ideal candidate for future in-orbit missions. The E-Walker would be able to extend the life cycle of a mission by carrying out routine maintenance and servicing missions post assembly, in space” explained Nair.

“The analysis of the scaled-down prototype identifies it to also be an ideal candidate for servicing, maintenance, and assembly operations on Earth, such as carrying out regular maintenance checks on wind turbines.”

Yet a lot remains to be explored. The research was limited to the design engineering analysis of a full-scale and prototype model of the E-Walker. Nair explained: “The E-Walker prototyping work is now in progress at the University of Lincoln; therefore, the experimental verification and validation will be published separately.”

---

JOURNAL

Frontiers in Robotics and AI

DOI

10.3389/frobt.2022.995813 

Kirk Douglas Fights Evil Robot - Saturn 3 (1980)

 

How scientist summarized the development of space robotic technologies for on-orbit assembly?

How to find the future research direction of space machine on-orbit assembly?

Peer-Reviewed Publication

BEIJING INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PRESS CO., LTD

 

IMAGE: HETEROGENEOUS SPACE ROBOTS ASSEMBLE LARGE SPACE STRUCTURES ON ORBIT. view more 

CREDIT: SPACE: SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY

The construction of large structures is one of the main development trends of the space exploration in the future, such as large space stations, large space solar power stations, and large space telescopes. However, due to their large size, such structures cannot be carried directly into space by rockets or spacecraft. Therefore, these large structures need to be broken down into multiple modular units, which are brought into space by a launch vehicle and then assembled. This is an important task of on-orbit servicing (OOS): on-orbit assembly. It is one of important development tendency, which aims to make full use of space robots to assemble space structures autonomously in the aerospace industry. In a review paper recently published in Space: Science & Technology, Qirong Tang from Tongji University and Delun Li and other experts and engineers from China Academy of Space Technology summarized the development status of space robot technology and the relevant space robot on-orbit assembly technology in recent decades.

First of all, the author introduced the research status of on-orbit assembly of space robots. The aerospace industry had been researching and practicing on-orbit service technology for decades. It was known that the space on-orbit assembly task could be completed by space robots and astronauts in collaboration. Although manual assembly by astronauts had proven to be an effective method for constructing space structures, this method had many limitations. Therefore, it was very necessary to use space robots to autonomously complete on-orbit assembly tasks. In general, space on-orbit assembly technology has gradually developed from manual operation to autonomous work. The way of working has shifted from simple assisted astronaut operations to autonomous assembly and maintenance. Mission scenes have also changed from a single small object to a large spatial structure. However, in terms of the development of space-in-orbit assembly technology, it has not yet matured and applied. However, as far as the development of space on-orbit assembly technology was concerned, it had not yet been matured and applied. Moreover, as the size of the object becomes larger, the flexible vibration becomes stronger, and the assembly accuracy becomes higher during the assembly process, the research on multi robot cooperation to complete high-precision operation needs to be in-depth.

Afterwards, the author discusses the key technologies of space-on-orbit assembly, including assembly sequence planning, space robot motion planning, on-orbit assembly, and vibration suppression and compliance control methods. Firstly, based on the space robot motion planning and assembly sequence planning, the development of space robot planning algorithms was introduced. The planning of assembly sequences described the details of assembly operations in how different parts should be placed in a product. The traditional assembly planning method was greatly affected by human factors. At the same time, the increasing complexity of assembly structure and the diversification of assembly evaluation criteria also brought difficulties to assembly sequence planning. Computer intelligent assembly methods, such as virtual reality technology, could make up for this deficiency and improve the efficiency and reliability of assembly sequence planning. As for the motion planning, it was of great significance to the on-orbit operation of space robots. When a space robot performs on-orbit assembly in space, a basic task was to move the spacecraft from one point to another in the state space. For the spacecraft itself, its state space was the displacement and rotation of the spacecraft in the Cartesian coordinate system. Therefore, the traditional Dijkstra, A∗, and other algorithms can be used as path planning methods. Besides, commonly used intelligent bionic algorithms, including genetic algorithm, ant colony algorithm, and particle swarm algorithm were also applied. Secondly, the space robot assembly method was summarized. The artificial potential field method, machine vision method, neural network learning method and so on were developed and applied in important scenarios, i.e. assembling the large space truss and performing space multirobot multitask. At last, from the control point of view, how to solve the vibration suppression and compliant assembly of on-orbit assembly is reviewed. Due to the microgravity conditions in space, it was easy to cause vibration of large structures. Analysis of single and multiple robot assembly strategies, as well as the hybrid method of branch and bound and improved ant colony algorithm, could suppress the vibration disturbance. In the assembly contact process, there was direct contact between the targets, and a certain amount of force (moment) would be generated, so compliance control was also very necessary. The current compliance control methods are mainly divided into two categories: active compliance and passive compliance. Passive compliance was completely dependent on the properties of the material, cannot be controlled, and had high uncertainty. And active compliance referred to obtaining contact force information through sensors, using the information as a feedback input to the controller, and performing feedback control of the robotic arm to reduce the contact force and achieve the purpose of compliance control. Active force position control generally adopted traditional “force-position” hybrid control, impedance control, and other methods.

Then, in order to simulate the space assembly scene on the ground, the author introduced the development of ground verification experiments and provided ideas for the effective verification of space on-orbit assembly technology. Due to the high cost of space on-orbit construction, the space manipulator and its related control system and other environments must be verified on the ground to ensure that all equipment can operate normally before the space on-orbit assembly. The biggest difference between the ground and space was whether there was gravity, so how to simulate zero-microgravity conditions was the key and focus of ground test verification. At present, there were five commonly used ground verification methods, namely, air flotation method, water flotation method, force compensation method, parabola method, and free fall method. The space administrations or space institutes of various countries had established corresponding laboratories, especially the air flotation experimental platform and the gravity compensation experimental platform with the purpose of completing the “space-ground consistency” experiment on the ground and ensuring the accuracy and feasibility of the experiment.

Finally, the author summarized opportunities and challenges of on-orbit assembly in the future.

On-orbit assembly relies on space multirobot coordination and a super presence and the support intelligent interaction capabilities such as brain control, voice control, and eye control are worthy being developed.

More intelligent on-orbit assembly technology is boosting, including the autonomous decision-making functions, fault diagnosis and self-repair functions, autonomous mission planning, autonomous work, and learning capabilities.

Diversified capabilities of space robots are potential. The robots not only need to have long-distance transfer and movement functions, but also need to have the ability to complete high-precision operations and flexible operations including clamping, rotating, pulling, cutting, connector operation, and even own functions of robot group reconstruction, robot task reconstruction, and configuration reconstruction.

JOURNAL

Space Science & Technology

DOI

10.34133/2022/9849170 

ARTICLE TITLE

A Survey of Space Robotic Technologies for On-Orbit Assembly

BRICS: Can it form multilateralism in Outer Space?

A satellite, as seen from space, tracks over South America. Photo: NASA


 August 6, 2023
By Archana Sharma

In January 2023, Russia’s assertion regarding the deteriorating relations with the United States had far-reaching consequences, particularly concerning their participation in the International Space Station (ISS) program. Moscow’s stated intention to withdraw from the ISS by 2024 has engendered significant uncertainties, posing serious questions about the future continuity of space cooperation between these two nations. This situation has added complexities and challenges to the international space domain. This marked the end of a 25-year forum of space cooperation between the two nations. However, in the BRICS meeting in Hermanus, Moscow offered BRICS members-Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa the chance to participate in the construction of a joint module for its planned orbital space station. Many critics suggest that the growing partnership between Moscow and Beijing in outer-space poses challenge for the west. However, this article contends that the growing partnership between Moscow and Beijing in space exploration should not be seen as a challenge for the West but rather as a wake-up call for a more inclusive and peaceful approach to outer space, free from historical power struggles. By promoting collaboration among diverse nations, BRICS can pave the way for a more democratic system in space, while addressing concerns about potential militarization and other environmental issues in space.

The Cold War space competition between the United States and the Soviet Union initiated the trend of having space capabilities to project political power. The launch of Sputnik by the Soviet Union in 1957 caused alarm in Washington and led to the establishment of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958, intended to rival Soviet achievements. In 1961, the Soviet Union made a record in history by sending Yuri Gagarin, the first man to enter Earth’s orbit. Subsequently, the triumph of the Apollo program, with Neil Armstrong becoming the first man on the moon, solidified the US’s position as the space exploration leader. During this period, space exploration remained largely confined to the two superpowers, leaving developing nations with limited involvement due to significant financial barriers and technical advancement.

The formation of BRICS was driven by a desire to create a more democratic financial and monetary system, reducing dependency on the US and European developed countries. In 2021, BRICS countries took a significant step towards collaboration by launching a cooperation committee to share remote sensing satellite and data. Now Russia’s call for BRICS members to participate in the construction of a joint module for its planned orbital space station. Undoubtedly, the Russia-Ukrainian war has emerged as a significant determinant in Moscow’s decision to withdraw from the International Space Station (ISS), which had been one of the last remaining channels of cooperation between Russia and the United States. Russia’s plans for the future involve the launch of the first stage of their planned space station, known as the Russian orbital system, which is anticipated to take place in 2027. This development further underscores the complexities surrounding the evolving dynamics in space exploration and raises important questions about the future landscape of international space cooperation.

Critics argue that Russia-China space cooperation poses a threat to national security. However, China’s aggressive advancements in space have disrupted the traditional hegemony of NASA, emphasizing the need for inclusive participation. In the article “U.S. Military Transformation and Weapons in Space” written by Everett C. Dolman mentioned that “No nation relies on space more than the United States.” It is essential to recognize that NASA’s historical exploits may not have been transparent to other nations, thus necessitating a new era of collaboration and shared knowledge. While the Russia-Ukraine conflict has influenced Moscow’s decision to withdraw from the ISS, BRICS’ partnership on the Russian orbital system presents an opportunity for greater collaboration in space. By leveraging the strengths of each member nation, BRICS can serve as a driving force to address complex issues such as space militarization and promote peaceful space exploration. For example: country like India which is known for cost-effective space programs can play a pivotal role in enabling other countries to participate in space exploration with shared values. Furthermore, BRICS serves as a forum through which China’s assertive space ambitions can potentially be moderated by fostering the development of appropriate space policies and collective goals.

In light of the growing concern over the militarization of outer space, the current international space treaty appears insufficient to adequately address future risks.

As the world faces critical challenges like climate change, inequality, war, international cooperation is paramount to resolve complex problems in space. Relying solely on individual nations to explore and utilize outer space may lead to fragmented efforts and exacerbate geopolitical tensions. While acknowledging that engagement with Moscow and Beijing poses certain challenges for member nations, embracing multilateralism in space through BRICS represents a hopeful avenue.

Considering the ever-changing geopolitics and power dynamics between the major world powers, it is can be surmised that the nature of war in outer-space will be inherently complex.

The collapse of the Russia-U.S. space corporation and Moscow’s withdrawal from the ISS underscore the need for a new approach to space exploration. BRICS offers a unique opportunity to foster multilateralism in outer space, decoupling it from space completion and promoting cooperation among diverse nations. By adhering to principles of non-discriminatory access and shared values, BRICS can lead the way to utilize space exploration for collective goods while mitigating concerns about space militarization. Embracing international cooperation, we can collectively address the challenges and opportunities that lie beyond our planet and ensure a peaceful and prosperous future for all of humanity. By building bridges among nations and promoting peaceful exploration, BRICS can revolutionize outer space cooperation for the benefit of all mankind. Moreover, Russian future space station might offer an opportunity to move beyond reliance on the American umbrella and foster a new system of multilateralism in space, thereby narrowing the gap between Western nations and the rest of the world.

The US-China Rivalry: Emergence of the Chip War in the Semiconductor Industry

Archana Sharma
I am a freelance Geopolitical Research Analyst. My area of research includes Foreign policy and Space diplomacy. I hold a Master's degree in Diplomacy, Law and Business and a Bachelor degree in Electronics and communication engineering.

Let's talk about sex — in space

It's naturally part of every human space exploration but remains taboo. Here's what we do and don’t know about cosmic sex.



Better hold on to each other: Sex in space will be more difficult than on Earth because of microgravity.

German astronaut Matthias Maurer breezes through interviews, rarely missing a beat when he answers journalists' questions around his upcoming six-month trip to the International Space Station (ISS). But one topic throws even Maurer off momentarily: sex drive in space.

"We haven't talked about this, because it's a professional environment," he replied to DW's question on whether astronauts exchange insights on how to handle their desires.

Thanks to commercial space flights, more people are entering the cosmos than ever before. Just this past week,SpaceX launched four tourists through the Earth's orbit. Ten years from now, the first crew of astronauts will likely set off on a mission to Mars that could last multiple years.

Sexuality is intrinsic to human nature and inevitably factors into space missions. But while space science is progressing, our understanding of sex in space is still basic.

NASA, the US's National Aeronautics and Space Administration, insists that no humans have had sex in space, and American astronauts famously avoid the topic. The few experiments that have been conducted on space sex focused on animals, not humans.

"We need to know more about sexuality in space if we are serious about long-duration space flights. Sexuality is very possibly going to be a part of that," Paul Root Wolpe, who spent 15 years as a senior bioethicist at NASA, tells DW.

German astronaut Matthias Maurer told DW that there is no official training on sexuality in space

Sex in space matters

Addressing sexuality in space isn't just important because it's what's on everyone's mind. Asked by DW whether sexuality is part of an astronaut's training, Matthias Maurer replied: "No, but maybe it should be.”

"If we look at sexual health as a core component of health, it's important to understand the conditions we are putting individuals in," Saralyn Mark, former senior medical adviser to NASA, tells DW.

Sex and masturbation are linked to physical and mental health — that doesn't change in space.

Ejaculation is essential for men to avoid the risk of bacteria building up in their prostate, and orgasms have been shown to relieve stress and anxiety as well as improve sleep quality, which likely helps during a high-pressure space mission.

Has it already happened?

We can only speculate, but it seems likely that sex in space has already happened. There are two space missions that jump out as candidates for the first cosmic coitus.

In 1982, Russian cosmonaut Svetlana Savitskaya, only the second-ever woman in space, joined the Soyuz T-7 space mission for eight days. Two male colleagues were already on board when she arrived, making it the first co-ed space mission.

In his book, Höllenritt durch Raum und Zeit (A hellride through time and space), German astronaut Ulrich Walter notes that, according to the team's doctor, Oleg Georgievich Gazenko, the flight was planned with a sexual encounter in mind.

The second mission in question took place in 1992, when NASA's Space Shuttle Endeavor was launched with a married couple on board. Mark Lee and Jan Davis, both astronauts, met at NASA. They married in secret a year before lift-off. Their joint flight to space was practically their honeymoon.

Svetlana Savitskaya and her colleagues Anatoly Berezovoi and Valentin Lebedev made up the world's first mixed-sex space crew

How is it different from here on Earth?

So, we can assume that sex in space is a reality. But how is it different to ours on Earth? Let's start with the basics: sex drive.

The little publicly available information that we have indicates that being in space leads to reduced libido, at least at first.

That's because microgravity, the weightlessness astronauts experience in space, causes hormonal changes, like decreases in estrogen. Low estrogen levels have been linked to a drop in sex drive.

Unfortunately, most of what we know about hormones in space comes only from tests on men. That's because only 11.5% of astronauts are female, and the relatively few women who have been to space opted to go on birth control beforehand to avoid menstruation. This makes it tricky to disentangle artificial hormonal changes from those caused by space flight.

Another factor in cosmic sex drive is a change in astronauts' internal clock.

"When you're going around the planet right now, every 90 minutes, your circadian rhythms are altered and that alters everything, including your sex hormones and probably your libido," Mark says.

The science also matches astronaut Walter's on-site experience. In his book, he writes that, during his short 10-day stay in space, he had no libido.

But there's hope: According to Walter, astronauts' sex drive does readjust after a few weeks in space.

Astronauts and arousal

While our knowledge of sex drive is still fuzzy, we have a much clearer picture on whether humans can get physically aroused in space.

Microgravity causes blood flow to reverse its course and move upwards, towards the head and chest, instead of circulating in the lower half of the body. The internet abounds with speculation on whether this prevents men from getting erections in space.

When asked whether space boners are viable, Mark gave a clear answer: "Yes, microgravity does not affect that path."

Root Wolpe agrees: "There is no reason why it should be biologically impossible."

Ron Garan, an American astronaut who went to space twice, was asked whether erections are possible in space on an Ask Me Anything Reddit thread.

"I know of nothing that happens to the human body on Earth that can't happen in space," he answered.

For women, arousal in space is possible as well but getting wet feels physically different than on planet Earth. In zero gravity, liquids collect at their point of origin, meaning they form a blob at the spot where they are secreted, instead of flowing freely.


Astronauts Mark Lee and Jan Davis spent their honeymoon aboard a space shuttle

Velcro and dolphin sex

So much for the biological basics. Now we are left with speculating about the act itself. One thing is certain: Sex in space is a far more exhausting endeavor than here on Earth.

In zero gravity, Newton's third law, which states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction, makes thrusting against each other a real challenge.

"We don't realize how much gravity assists us in the act of intercourse," Wolpe says. "Sex involves pressure. In space, without any counterforce, you end up constantly trying to push your partner away from you."

But where there's a will, there's a way.

In an interview with German public broadcaster NDR, Walter suggested that astronauts could adopt a method employed by dolphins in the ocean, where a third party holds the other two together to prevent them from drifting.

Wolpe has another idea: "Everything on the walls of the space station is covered in Velcro, so you could take advantage of that by velcroing one partner to the wall. You have to get creative in this space."

SPACE TOURISM: OUT OF REACH FOR MOST EARTHLINGS

An unbeatable record

Dennis Tito was and always will be the first civilian to travel to space. Tito had been a NASA engineer before turning to finance. He had always dreamed of a trip to space and is said to have paid $20 million to have his dream come true. It was hard convincing the big space agencies, but on April 28, 2001, Tito took a ride on a Soyuz rocket and spent six days at the International Space Station.

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Regulate outer space before it is too late

July 16, 2022
By Nayef Al-Rodhan

The war in Ukraine has reached outer space as Russia and the United States lock horns in flag-waving catfightsin the International Space Station, long heralded as the epitome of international co-operation. This is the second international conflict manifesting itself in space in just over a month. A few weeks ago, the collapse of the Kleo Connect joint venture between Europe and China, aimed at producing hundreds of Low-Earth Orbit satellites, highlighted the fragility of the space domain.

These developments are a timely reminder that the EU’s new multilateral space initiatives are not sufficient and need to be accompanied by a durable framework for cooperation and non-conflictual competition in space.

Outer space is a global commons, which means it is in everyone’s interest that new codes of conduct and treaties are implemented to ensure greater collaboration between states and private space actors. So how do we keep the peace in space while still encouraging healthy competition the fuels innovation? The key lies in smart regulation and strong multilateral consensus. Given the intimate connection between space security and terrestrial security, a simple yet compelling principle must guide space security and inter-state relations down here on Earth: if outer space becomes critically unsafe, it will be unsafe for everyone without exception.

The rules, or lack thereof, that govern space today, are already directly impacting our relations here on Earth. The quest for space supremacy has catalysed the increasingly fraught relations between the U.S., China and Russia, as well as between the UK and the EU, as Brexit forced Britain to leave the EU’s Galileo system.

Competition in the space domain is crucial for the development and improvement of increasingly complex space technologies. However, this unchecked, and potentially conflictual competition, has come hand in hand with an increasingly insecure space frontier. The global race for ever more accurate satellite infrastructure has induced a rise of increasingly hostile cyber operations. The transmission of counterfeit signals, known as spoofing, the intentional interference of signals, known as jamming, hijacking and even direct kinetic attacks are likely to become more frequent as they given the cloak of national security. They are a growing concern for sustainable global security.

Despite its limitations, the Outer Space Treaty of 1967, established over half a century ago, remains the foundation of international space law and is the most important of the UN’s five major space treaties. The lack of a renewed treaty capturing all the technological advancements achieved over the last decades has created a vacuum in the space domain that has been filled by increasing anarchy and narrow unilateral geopolitical goals.

While the 1967 treaty critically prohibits the deployment of weapons of mass destruction in outer space, it does not prohibit the launch of ballistic missiles through space. It also does not prohibit the placement of non-nuclear weapons in space. In short, the treaty does not prevent all forms of escalation, and it leaves many issues unaddressed, particularly in the age of new weapons and cyber technologies. The unwillingness of the signatory parties to develop their space capacities exclusively for “peaceful purposes”, as stipulated in the treaty, has set a precedent for accepting militarised space use, which continues today.

While space infrastructure undoubtedly holds an important role in national defence and security, it also plays a pivotal role in our global economy. Our global communications systems powered by satellites allow us to closely monitor the trillions of dollars’ worth of goods being traded every day. We receive crucial intelligence regarding geological and meteorological developments through our satellites that allow us to thwart natural disasters saving trillions of dollars and thousands of lives in the process. Satellites now also play a decisive role in our ability to monitor and track worrying changes in our climate and environment. More resources need to be allocated into these crucial activities and away from reckless military escalation.

The use of the ISS for national propaganda and the collapse of the Kleo Connect joint venture illustrates that the trust and cooperation needed for rival countries to navigate the space economy are still in short supply. The EU’s new Space Traffic Management initiative aims to develop an EU strategy to ensure the safe and sustainable use of space while preserving the EU space industry’s competitiveness. It is a step in the right direction but it is not enough to defuse tensions in space. Given the critical role of outer space both for civilian and military purposes, a carefully managed, well-regulated and cooperative framework is indispensable moving forward. Gaps in space law, such as over space mining and debris and the role of private actors, will need to be addressed responsibly within international fora with legally binding agreements. Other neglected areas include space debris mitigation, situational awareness and space traffic management rules. The same ethos that spearheaded the successful Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the Partial Test Ban Treaty must steer our space relations.

Our advanced societies are becoming increasingly and irreversibly overdependent on outer space in our daily activities. Therefore, any disruption or conflict in outer space, intentional or accidental, will be at the detriment of us all. Regulating space is an urgent priority for the global community – it is high time that it is treated as one.


Nayef Al-Rodhan
Professor Nayef Al-Rodhan is a neuroscientist and philosopher. He is an Honorary Fellow at St Antony’s College, University of Oxford, and the Head of the Geopolitics & Global Futures Programme at the Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP).