When students belong, they’re more likely to earn a degree

Link between belonging and a college degree is substantial—and quantified by Wake Forest University research

Wake Forest University

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Students are more likely to attain their degree when they report a stronger sense of belonging in their first year of college, according to a new study by Wake Forest University psychology professor Shannon Brady.

A one-point increase on a five-point belonging scale corresponded to a 3.4 percentage-point bump in the likelihood that a student would graduate within four years.

It’s a rare—and likely first-time—look at how much a student’s feelings of belonging predict whether they earn a degree. College Students’ Sense of Belonging: A Graduation Update, published online in the peer-reviewed journal Educational Researcher, pulls on nationally representative survey data from more than 21,000 undergraduate students enrolled in thousands of two- and-  four-year colleges across the U.S.

The students in the study started college in 2011-12 and graduation outcomes were measured in 2015 and 2017, four and six years later. Brady said the findings send a clear message that fostering a sense of belonging is vital on campus.

“When students feel a part of their institution—supported by faculty, engaged in coursework and part of a broader community—their college outcomes are different,” said Brady, first author of the study. “This connection between belonging and graduation highlights the importance of institutional efforts that help students feel academically and socially integrated—not as a ‘nice-to-have,’ but as a key dimension of student success.”

What college belonging looks like

College students who feel like they belong at an institution are more likely to take advantage of resources when they need them and to build relationships that support both their academic performance and persistence toward earning a degree.

Brady cautions, however, that creating that sense of belonging is less about showing students a good time than about assuring students they have the support, understanding and resources to succeed.

She said that students who feel like they belong likely also feel comfortable and confident that they can handle the challenges they might face in the academic space and go on to earn a degree. 

Why belonging matters in college

The importance of degree attainment provides the impetus behind Brady’s study: Research shows that college graduates achieve better employment, report greater well-being, and engage more in the community. 

College Students’ Sense of Belonging: A Graduation Update focuses on one question in the Beginning Postsecondary Students Longitudinal Study, with answers collected in the spring of an undergraduate’s first and third years. In this national survey, conducted by the federal government, students react to a single question about belonging: I feel that I am a part of [SCHOOL]; 1 = Strongly disagree, 5 = Strongly agree.

The association between belonging and receiving a degree is substantial. In addition to the greater four-year completion rate, Brady found that a one-point increase on the belonging scale corresponded to a 2.7 percentage-point greater likelihood that a student earned a degree within six years. A gain of that size is comparable to the bump in graduation rates researchers see from thousands of dollars in additional financial aid.

The new findings indicate that change matters, too. Even students who start out feeling less connected are more likely to finish if their sense of belonging grows over time. So institutions that track a sense of belonging and attempt to increase that sense for struggling students could change their outcomes for the better.

“You might think that students come into first year and either feel that sense of belonging or they don’t, and then it's set,” Brady noted. “But our data are suggesting that how things fluctuate over time also matters for students.”

How to use these findings on campus

For institutions looking to increase students’ sense of belonging—and their graduation rates—Brady said it might come down to building a culture rather than rolling out a single program. “For most students, especially those more vulnerable to feeling like they don’t belong, I don't think pompoms and a T-shirt are going to cut it,” she explained. Rather, she said, institutions need to identify structural and psychological barriers that make it harder for some students to feel included and remove those barriers. 

For example, in previous research, she and her colleagues found that brief online interventions designed to normalize worries about belonging and forecast positive trajectories of growth at college led more students to complete their first year of college. But she emphasized that such interventions wouldn’t be expected to work everywhere; as a recent multi-campus trial showed, they help only when students have real opportunities to belong on campus. She also pointed to New York’s acclaimed ASAP program, which seeks to remove everyday barriers like transportation costs, complicated scheduling, and limited advising. It has been shown to improve graduation rates—and to strengthen students’ feelings of belonging. 

Brady underscores how valuable it could be for institutions and the higher education community to better and more frequently measure students’ belonging, being able to link students’ measurements over time and connect them to other aspects of their college experience. 

“It’s wild that we are the first ones to be able to do this, but the data just haven’t existed,” Brady said. 

She and her current co-author, Maithreyi Gopalan of the University of Oregon, recommend that a standardized, multi-item belonging tool be created and widely implemented across campuses so that universities might better understand what creates that sense of belonging, and what might influence it for the better.

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Journal

Educational Researcher

Article Title

College Students’ Sense of Belonging: A Graduation Update

Article Publication Date

25-Nov-2025

 

Too sick to socialize: How the brain and immune system promote staying in bed

MIT researchers have discovered how an immune system molecule triggers neurons in a specific brain circuit to shut down social behavior in mice modeling infection

Picower Institute at MIT

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image: 

A figure from the paper illustrates that among cells expressing myc (green), a proxy for the IL-1R1 receptor, neural activation is much greater as measured with fos (magenta) when IL-1 beta was administered vs. when a control (vehicle) chemical was.

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Credit: Cho Lab/MIT Picower Institute

“I just can’t make it tonight. You have fun without me.” Across much of the animal kingdom, when infection strikes, social contact shuts down. A new study details how the immune and central nervous systems implement this sickness behavior.

It makes perfect sense that when we’re battling an infection, we lose our desire to be around others. That protects them from getting sick and lets us get much needed rest. What hasn’t been as clear is how this behavior change happens.

In the research published Nov. 25 in Cell, scientists at The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory of MIT and collaborators used multiple methods to demonstrate causally that when the immune system cytokine interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β) reaches the IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) on neurons in a brain region called the dorsal raphe nucleus, that activates connections with the intermediate lateral septum to shut down social behavior.

“Our findings show that social isolation following immune challenge is self-imposed and driven by an active neural process, rather than a secondary consequence of physiological symptoms of sickness, such as lethargy,” said study co-senior author Gloria Choi, associate professor in The Picower Institute and MIT’s Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences.

Jun Huh, Harvard Medical School associate professor of immunology, is the paper’s co-senior author. The lead author is Liu Yang, a research scientist in Choi’s lab.

A molecule and its receptor

Choi and Huh’s long collaboration have identified other cytokines that affect social behavior by latching on to their receptors in the brain, so in this study their team hypothesized that the same kind of dynamic might cause social withdrawal during infection. But which cytokine? And what brain circuits might be affected?

To get started, Yang and her colleagues injected 21 different cytokines into the brains of mice, one by one, to see if any triggered social withdrawal the same way that giving mice LPS (a standard way of simulating infection) did. Only IL-1β injection fully recapitulated the same social withdrawal behavior as LPS. That said, IL-1β also made the mice more sluggish.

IL-1β affects cells when it hooks up with the IL-1R1, so the team next went looking across the brain for where the receptor is expressed. They identified several regions and examined individual neurons in each. The dorsal raphe nucleus (DRN) stood out among regions, both because it is known to modulate social behavior and because it is situated next to the cerebral aqueduct, which would give it plenty of exposure to incoming cytokines in cerebrospinal fluid. The experiments identified populations of DRN neurons that express the IL-1R1, including many involved in making the crucial neuromodulatory chemical serotonin.

From there, Yang and the team demonstrated that IL-1β activates those neurons, and that activating the neurons promotes social withdrawal. Moreover, they showed that inhibiting that neural activity prevented social withdrawal in mice treated with IL-1β, and they showed that shutting down the IL-1R1 in the DRN neurons also prevented social withdrawal behavior after IL-1β injection or LPS exposure. Notably, these experiments did not change the lethargy that followed IL-1β or LPS, helping to demonstrate that social withdrawal and lethargy occur through different means.

“Our findings implicate IL-1β as a primary effector driving social withdrawal during systemic immune activation,” the researchers wrote in Cell.

Tracing the circuit

With the DRN identified as the site where neurons receiving IL-1β drove social withdrawal, the next question was what circuit they effected that behavior change through. The team traced where the neurons make their circuit projections and found several regions that have a known role in social behavior. Using optogenetics, a technology that engineers cells to become controllable with flashes of light, the scientists were able to activate the DRN neurons’ connections with each downstream region. Only activating the DRN’s connections with the intermediate lateral septum caused the social withdrawal behaviors seen with IL-1β injection or LPS exposure.

In a final test, they replicated their results by exposing some mice to salmonella.

“Collectively, these results reveal a role for IL-1R1-expressing DRN neurons in mediating social withdrawal in response to IL-1β during systemic immune challenge,” the researchers wrote.

Though the study revealed the cytokine, neurons and circuit responsible for social withdrawal in mice in detail and with demonstrations of causality, the results still inspire new questions. One is whether IL-1R1 neurons affect other sickness behaviors. Another is whether serotonin has a role in social withdrawal or other sickness behaviors.

In addition to Yang, Choi and Huh, the paper’s other authors are Matias Andina, Mario Witkowski, Hunter King, and Ian Wickersham.

Funding for the research came from The National Institute of Mental Health, the National Research Foundation of Korea, the Denis A. and Eugene W. Chinery Fund

for Neurodevelopmental Research, the Jeongho Kim Neurodevelopmental Research Fund, Perry Ha, the Simons Center for the Social Brain, the Simons Foundation Autism Research Initiative, The Picower Institute for Learning and Memory, and The Freedom Together Foundation.

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Journal

Cell

DOI

10.1016/j.cell.2025.10.040 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

IL-1R-positive dorsal raphe neurons drive self-imposed social withdrawal in sickness

Article Publication Date

25-Nov-2025

 

Seal milk more refined than breast milk

University of Gothenburg

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image: 

The Atlantic grey seal nurses its young for only 17 days. This means that the milk must be packed with good stuff to quickly prepare the seal pup for a tough life at sea. Researchers have analysed seal milk and discovered many new types of milk sugar.

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Credit: Patrick Pomeroy

Researchers at the University of Gothenburg have discovered that milk from grey seals in the Atlantic Ocean may be more potent than breast milk. An analysis of seal milk found approximately 33 per cent more sugar molecules than in breast milk. Many of these sugars are unique and may pave the way for even better infant formula for babies.   

During the 17 days that grey seal pups suckle, they need to get their digestive systems up and running and build up an immune system to protect them against diseases and other dangers they may encounter in the North Atlantic. It is reasonable to suspect that their mother's milk is extremely refined to accomplish this task. A new study in Nature Communications shows that this is indeed the case.

“Our analysis shows that grey seal milk is extraordinary. We identified 332 different sugar molecules, or sugars, compared to about 250 in breast milk. Two-thirds were completely unknown previously. Some of these molecules had a previously unseen size of 28 sugar units, which exceeds the largest known sugar units in breast milk, which are 18 units in size,” says Daniel Bojar, senior lecturer in bioinformatics.

Protects against bacteria

Oligosaccharides are a type of sugars found in the milk of all mammals that contributes to the development and health of offspring. These sugars have important functions, including protecting against viruses and bacteria, cultivating the initial flora of the body's microorganisms and promoting the development of the stomach and intestinal tract. Despite their importance, there are gaps in our knowledge of the diversity of milk sugar in animals, mainly because a limited number of studies have been conducted on non-human mammals.

“For the first time, we have been able to analyse the milk sugars in the milk of a wild mammal throughout the entire lactation period. This is important because the composition of the milk changes as the calf gets older,” says Daniel Bojar.

The milk changes

Milk was collected on several occasions from five wild grey seals off the coast of Scotland throughout their lactation period. Using mass spectrometry, the researchers were able to characterise 240 of the sugars found structurally. Using a combination of analyses and AI models, the study also reveals that the composition of seal milk undergoes coordinated changes throughout the lactation period, similar to that of breast milk.

“The sugars bind to various proteins found in, for example, the immune system. We have tested the newly discovered sugar molecules on human immune cells and found that they can regulate the cells' response to various threats. The findings suggest that wild marine mammals, which are exposed to extreme environmental stresses and high exposure to external dangers, have developed a complex milk to protect their rapidly growing young,” says Daniel Bojar.

Support for the immune system

This analysis also showed that several of the sugar molecules have powerful properties against disease-causing bacteria.

The research paves the way for the discovery of new bioactive compounds with potential applications in infant nutrition, infection control and immune system support. In the future, these newly discovered sugar molecules could be added to breast milk substitutes to strengthen the immune system in infants. The milk sugars could also be given to adults to keep the gastrointestinal system healthy.

“The study highlights the untapped biomedical potential hidden in understudied wild species. Our research group is the only one in the world to analyse milk sugars from these uncharacterized mammals using mass spectrometry in that depth. We have done this for ten different mammals, and we find unique sugar molecules every time. We will continue. We have milk from another 20 mammals in the freezer,” says Daniel Bojar.

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Journal

Nature Communications

DOI

10.1038/s41467-025-66075-2 

Method of Research

Content analysis

Subject of Research

Animals

Article Title

Seal milk oligosaccharides rival human milk complexity and exhibit functional dynamics during lactation

Article Publication Date

25-Nov-2025

 

Veterans with cardiometabolic conditions face significant risk of dying during extreme heat events

Veterans represent a particularly vulnerable population during heat waves, with their older age, high rates of heart disease and diabetes, and use of medications that amplify heat's effects combining to create significant mortality risk

University of California - Los Angeles Health Sciences

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Veterans living in California who have cardiometabolic conditions such as diabetes and high blood pressure experience significantly higher risk of dying during heat waves compared to cooler days, UCLA-led research finds.

The study, to be published in the peer-reviewed JAMA Network Open, demonstrates the danger that heat waves can pose for people with heart disease and risk factors for heart disease, whether or not they are veterans, said Dr. Evan Shannon, assistant professor-in-residence at the David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA and the study’s lead author. Veterans are particularly vulnerable to these heat events because they tend to be older, are likelier to have health issues such as heart disease and be on medications that can increase their mortality risk from heat exposure, and are frequently unhoused or live in low-income urban areas where the dense, built environment traps heat – the “urban heat islands.”

“This was among the first studies to examine the association of extreme heat and mortality in veteran VA users,” said Shannon, who also holds an appointment with VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System.  “Although VA users have reduced barriers to healthcare access and dedicated programs to address health-related social factors, veterans with underlying risk factors for heart disease, including those with common conditions such as hypertension and diabetes, remain at risk of death during heat waves.”

The researchers analyzed administrative and electronic health record data from the VA Corporate Data Warehouse and found that about 13,600 California veterans with underlying cardiometabolic conditions, 98% of whom were male, died  during fiscal years 2016 through 2021.

Overall, they found that veterans stood a 10% to 14% higher risk of dying during days with extreme heat (defined as temperatures above the 95th percentile of historical average temperatures) compared with other days. Those living in more disadvantaged neighborhoods faced 44% greater odds of dying on those days compared with 12% of veterans residing in more affluent areas. Homeless veterans experienced a 25% higher risk of death vs. 12% for housed veterans.

“Although this study was performed at the VA and only included veterans, we expect the findings to apply to non-Veterans as well,” Shannon said.

Several factors limit the findings, the researchers note. Among them, they assumed, but could not verify, that the patients were at or near their home on a given day; they did not have any measure of indoor heat, so could not determine if any had air conditioning; their definition of homelessness does not distinguish between sheltered and unsheltered individuals, and the findings may not apply to people outside of California.

As a next step, the researchers will work to determine any association between heat waves and hospitalizations or emergency department visits at both VA and non-VA medical centers, Shannon said. In addition, he is also working toward developing a toolkit to protect unhoused veterans from extreme heat.

“Given the projected increase in [extreme heat events] as global average temperatures rise, the VA and other integrated healthcare systems must develop heat preparedness and response plans to protect people from heat-related morbidity and mortality,” the researchers write.

Study co-authors are Lillian Chen, Dr. Sonya Gabrielian, Dr. David Eisenman, and Dr. Donna  Washington of UCLA, Anita Yuan of VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, and Dr. Aarthi Chary of Stanford University and VA Paolo Alto Healthcare System. Gabrielian and Washington also have appointments with VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System.

The UCLA-UCI Center for Elimination Cardio-Metabolic Disparities in Multi-Ethnic Populations (NIMHD P50MD017366) funded the study.

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Journal

JAMA Network Open

DOI

10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2025.45524 

Method of Research

Data/statistical analysis

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Extreme Heat, Social Factors, and Mortality Among California Veterans With Cardiometabolic Disease

Article Publication Date

25-Nov-2025