How reactive oxygen species target viruses differently: new clues for safer water disinfection

Nanjing Institute of Environmental Sciences, MEE

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Heterogeneity in biological mechanisms of different structural viruses inactivation by various ROS. Schematic illustration of how structurally distinct viruses respond to ROS including hydroxyl radicals (•OH), singlet oxygen (1O2), and superoxide radicals (•O2⁻). Enveloped RNA virus (phi6) exhibits extensive lipid and protein oxidation, while non-enveloped ssRNA (MS2), ssDNA (phix174), and dsDNA (T4) viruses show varying levels of capsid and genome damage. Comparative bars on the right summarize the relative inactivation efficiency and damage intensity of ROS types, revealing that •OH causes the strongest overall inactivation, 1O2 preferentially oxidizes proteins, and •O2⁻ mainly targets RNA.

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Credit: Eco-Environment & Health

Viruses in water pose major public health threats, yet their structural diversity makes them unequally susceptibility to disinfection. This study systematically explored how reactive oxygen species (ROS)—including hydroxyl radicals (•OH), singlet oxygen (1O2), and superoxide radicals (•O2⁻)—inactivate viruses with distinct structures. Using visible-light photocatalysis, the team quantified second-order rate constants and mapped biological damage to viral proteins, genomes, and lipids. The results revealed clear heterogeneity: enveloped RNA viruses were most susceptible to oxidation, while double-stranded DNA viruses showed strong resistance. These findings uncover the kinetic and mechanistic basis of viral susceptibility to ROS and provide theoretical guidance for advanced oxidation technologies in safe water treatment.

Waterborne viruses such as MS2 and T4 can survive conventional disinfection, posing challenges to public health systems. Advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) generate reactive oxygen species (ROS) that can destroy viral structures, offering promising disinfection solutions. However, the susceptibility of viruses with different genomes and envelopes to specific ROS remains poorly understood. Previous research has shown that single-stranded RNA viruses are more easily oxidized than DNA viruses, but the kinetics and mechanisms behind these variations are unclear. The complex interactions between viral components—proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids—and ROS still lack systematic characterization. Based on these challenges, it is necessary to conduct in-depth research on the heterogeneous susceptibility of structurally distinct viruses to various ROS.

Researchers from Jilin University and Zhejiang University have uncovered how viruses with distinct structural and genomic features respond differently to oxidative stress. The study (DOI: 10.1016/j.eehl.2025.100178), published on August 20, 2025, in Eco-Environment & Health, demonstrates the kinetic and biological mechanisms underlying virus inactivation by ROS generated through visible-light photocatalysis. Using four bacteriophage models—MS2, phi6, phix174, and T4—the team quantified their susceptibility to hydroxyl radicals, singlet oxygen, and superoxide radicals, revealing key structural determinants that govern oxidative resistance and susceptibility in viruses.

The study employed visible-light catalytic systems using g-C3N4, TiO2, and C60 nanomaterials to generate dominant ROS species (•O2⁻, •OH, and 1O2). Quantitative kinetic modeling showed significant variation in second-order inactivation rate constants, ranging from 105 to 1010 M⁻1 s⁻1. The viruses exhibited a consistent susceptibility ranking of phi6 > MS2 > phix174 > T4, reflecting their distinct envelopes and genome types. Hydroxyl radicals displayed broad-spectrum oxidative power, while singlet oxygen selectively oxidized capsid proteins, and superoxide radicals preferentially damaged RNA. Transmission electron microscopy revealed that ROS exposure caused capsid distortion, head-tail separation, and envelope collapse, depending on the viral structure. Protein assays, nucleic acid degradation measurements, and lipid peroxidation analyses confirmed that the structural complexity of viral proteins and the double-stranded nature of DNA confer greater resistance. Furthermore, tests in natural water matrices showed that dissolved organic matter and pH significantly reduced inactivation efficiency, with 1O2 proving the most stable and environmentally compatible oxidant.

“Understanding how different ROS interact with viral structures allows us to design more targeted and efficient disinfection systems,” said Professor Cong Lyu, the study’s corresponding author. “Our results highlight that viral resistance is not random—it’s rooted in molecular architecture. Enveloped and single-stranded RNA viruses are inherently more susceptible to oxidative attack, while complex double-stranded DNA viruses exhibit remarkable resistance. This knowledge provides a scientific foundation for improving AOPs in real-world water treatment, ensuring both safety and sustainability.”

This research offers a mechanistic framework for optimizing water disinfection technologies based on virus type and environmental conditions. By linking viral structure to ROS reactivity, it establishes predictive principles for designing selective and energy-efficient oxidation systems. The findings suggest that singlet oxygen–dominated photocatalysis, owing to its stability and selectivity, is particularly suitable for complex water environments. Integrating these insights into advanced oxidation technologies could enhance the safety of municipal and wastewater treatment, support emergency epidemic control, and reduce chemical disinfectant usage—advancing sustainable and resilient public health protection strategies.

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References

DOI

10.1016/j.eehl.2025.100178

Original Source URL

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eehl.2025.100178

Funding Information

The present work was funded by the Science and Technology Development Program of Jilin Province, China (No. 20220101214JC).

About Eco-Environment & Health (EEH) 

Eco-Environment & Health (EEH) is an international and multidisciplinary peer-reviewed journal designed for publications on the frontiers of the ecology, environment and health as well as their related disciplines. EEH focuses on the concept of “One Health” to promote green and sustainable development, dealing with the interactions among ecology, environment and health, and the underlying mechanisms and interventions. Our mission is to be one of the most important flagship journals in the field of environmental health.

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Journal

Eco-Environment & Health

DOI

10.1016/j.eehl.2025.100178 

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Heterogeneity in susceptibility of viruses with different structures to various reactive oxygen species: Kinetics and biological mechanisms

 

Fishing for phages in Lund University’s Botanical Gardens

Lund University

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Vasili Hauryliuk

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Credit: Kennet Ruona

Kompetensportalen, Lucat, Lupin, Lubas and LUCRIS. Those are the names of some of Lund University’s administrative systems. They are now also the names of five new bacteriophages that have recently been discovered in the ponds of Lund University’s Botanical Gardens.

Bacteriophages – often abbreviated to phages – are viruses that attack bacteria. Phages are astonishingly effective assassins – these viruses wipe out 20 percent of all bacteria on Earth every day. The ongoing battle with bacteria has made phages humanity’s natural ally when it comes to treating bacterial infections The growing urgency of combating antibiotic resistance has made phage research – particularly the development of phage-basered therapies – more relevant than ever.

“Bacteria are under constant attack from phages. Phages are picky about their prey – different phages infect different species of bacteria, sometimes only a specific strain. The challenge lies in assembling the right “collection” of phages, each one a precision weapon calibrated to infect and obliterate only the intended strain of bacteria,” says Vasili Hauryliuk, professor of medical biochemistry at Lund University.

Finding the right bacteriophage for the right bacterial strain is a major challenge. Natural bacterial strains are also constantly changing, thanks to mutations among other things. This means that a phage that has previously been effective may become ineffective.

At Lund University, Sweden’s first international course in phage biology has been completed. Doctoral students from across Europe came to attend lectures by leading phage researchers, exchange ideas, and, of course, to hunt for new phages and find the right precision weapons with which to attack various bacteria. Phages thrive wherever bacteria are found, which often means ponds and watercourses that are rich in organic material. The ponds in Lund University’s Botanical Gardens – both indoors and out – therefore proved to be perfect locations for phage fishing. However, to catch phages requires the right “bait”, which means the right bacterial strain to attract the virus.

“Collecting phages is like fishing in that you never know what you will end up with on the hook. Since it is fairly simple to isolate bacteriophages from ponds – and Lund has several – we combined research and education and went fishing for phages,” says Marcus Johansson, associate researcher at Lund University and one of the course coordinators. He is also last author on the study.

The researchers used a strain of E. coli, a common gut bacterium that can become a lethal pathogen. When a laboratory E. coli strain is grown in flasks without shaking, it becomes motile by developing a so-called flagellum – a “tail” that the bacterium uses to propel itself and explore the environment. Some phages specifically recognise the “tail” to infect. Using a motile E. coli strain, researchers managed to catch a new “tail-loving” phage from the Botanical Gardens’ ponds. Remarkably, this phage can kill not only E. coli, but also another motile bacterial species –Salmonella.

“One fun part about phage fishing is that you can name the new viruses – and phage names can be pretty weird! We wanted our phages to have names that were linked to Lund University and the tail-loving phage was named “Kompetensportalen”. We named two other phages Lucat and Lupin, after the University’s staff directory and its purchasing and invoicing tool, respectively” explains Vasili Hauryliuk.

The total of five newly-discovered bacteriophages from the Botanical Gardens are now serving as ambassadors for Lund University in the world of international phage research. The phage, “Kompetensportalen” has quickly attracted attention and phage researchers from outside Sweden have already expressed an interest in it.

“The diversity of bacteriophages discovered in the Botanical Gardens’ ponds is particularly fascinating as the Gardens’ greenhouses are currently being renovated. It underlines the great diversity in biology and our role as a centre for education and research. It is exciting to discover that our ponds are home to more than just plants,” says Allison Perrigo, director of Lund University’s Botanical Gardens.

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Journal

Microbiology Spectrum

DOI

10.1128/spectrum.02274-25 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Characterization of five environmental phages infecting Escherichia coli K-12 isolated during a phage biology training course

Article Publication Date

26-Nov-2025

 

New collection of bacteria-eating viruses to tackle hospital superbug

University of Southampton

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Samples in the phage collection. Transparent dots show where the phages have been effective in breaking down bacteria.

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Credit: University of Southampton

An international team of researchers led by the University of Southampton and funded by Bowel Research UK have comprehensively catalogued a new collection of bacteria-eating viruses called phages sourced, in part, from hospital wastewater.

The phages in the collection have been shown to be effective against different strains of Klebsiella pneumoniae - a type of bacteria that has become a serious threat in hospitals because of its growing resistance to multiple antibiotics.

While phages that target Klebsiella are increasingly being documented in research, their clinical use has been slowed by fragmented access to data on phages and which bacteria they target.

To speed up research and treatment development, the researchers have made the new collection open source and publicly available at www.klebphacol.org. It’s been detailed in a paper published today (20 November 2025) in Nucleic Acids Research.

Dr Franklin Nobrega, Associate Professor in Microbiology at the University of Southampton and project lead, whose work is supported by Bowel Research UK, said: “Making the Klebsiella Phage Collection open access is crucial. It means scientists everywhere can both use and build on it. Researchers can request samples of phages and bacterial strains for their own studies, compare results across labs, and even contribute new phages and strains to the collection.

“By sharing these resources openly, we’re breaking down barriers that have slowed progress and creating a truly collaborative global effort to tackle antibiotic resistance.”

Klebsiella can cause serious infections such as pneumonia, bloodstream infections, and urinary tract infections—particularly in hospital patients or people with weakened immune systems.

Health officials are particularly concerned as some strains are developing resistance to multiple antibiotics, including those used as a last resort when others have failed.  

New phage family discovered

Different phages work a bit like different keys - each one can only “unlock” (infect) certain strains of the bacteria.

The Klebsiella Phage Collection fully characterises 52 different phages, alongside 74 strains of Klebsiella. These phages come from five viral families, including a newly discovered group linked to the human gut.

Previous studies have suggested that some strains of Klebsiella are associated with inflammation in the gut, potentially worsening inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Dr Nobrega commented: “Some of these newly identified phages can be found in people’s guts across the world, in everyone from pre-term babies to older adults. They were found in healthy guts, so we know they are important for good gut health.

“The presence or absence of certain phages can predict how severe diseases like bowel cancer and IBD are going to be, so our discovery, along with our new library of phages, paves the way for more research to understanding more about these diseases and ultimately improve treatments.”

Kathryn Pretzel-Shiels, CEO of Bowel Research UK, said: “Research like this is crucial in understanding the best way to harness the power of the microbiome to prevent and treat bowel conditions. We're enabling more research to help scientists fully understand the role our gut microbiome plays in maintaining a healthy gut and protecting us from bowel disease.”

The hope is that this phage library will not only support new treatments but also improve understanding of how phages and bacteria interact -knowledge that could prove vital in the fight against antibiotic resistance.

KlebPhaCol:  A community-driven resource for Klebsiella research identified a novel phage family is published in Nucleic Acids Research and is available online.

Ends

Contact

Steve Williams, Media Manager, University of Southampton, press@soton.ac.uk or 023 8059 3212.

Helen Pope, Communications Consultant Bowel Research UK, press@bowelresearchuk.org or 07879 818247

Notes for editors

1. KlebPhaCol: A community-driven resource for Klebsiella research identified a novel phage family is published in Nucleic Acids Research. It is available here: KlebPhaCol: a community-driven resource for Klebsiella research identified a novel phage family | Nucleic Acids Research | Oxford Academic
2. For Interviews, please contact Steve Williams, Media Manager, University of Southampton press@soton.ac.uk or 023 8059 3212.
3. Images available here: https://safesend.soton.ac.uk/pickup?claimID=aZ5sTfSTEv5MP7zo&claimPasscode=r393Ndzqcx8qbj2ov
4. Video for bulletins available here: https://safesend.soton.ac.uk/pickup?claimID=M96oYMtAaAHZBd8z&claimPasscode=a89ZZ6QYk777tgqW

Additional information

The University of Southampton drives original thinking, turns knowledge into action and impact, and creates solutions to the world’s challenges. We are among the top 100 institutions globally (QS World University Rankings 2025). Our academics are leaders in their fields, forging links with high-profile international businesses and organisations, and inspiring a 24,000-strong community of exceptional students, from over 135 countries worldwide. Through our high-quality education, the University helps students on a journey of discovery to realise their potential and join our global network of over 300,000 alumni. www.southampton.ac.uk

www.southampton.ac.uk/news/contact-press-team.page

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About Bowel Research UK

Bowel Research UK is funding life-changing research into bowel cancer and other bowel diseases. Every year over 16,000 people die from bowel cancer in the UK and over a million suffer from bowel disease. By researching cutting edge treatments and investing in the best science, we’re saving and improving people’s lives We’re the UK’s leading specialist bowel cancer and bowel disease research charity and our research is saving and improving lives. https://www.bowelresearchuk.org/

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Journal

Nucleic Acids Research

DOI

10.1093/nar/gkaf1122 

Article Title

KlebPhaCol: a community-driven resource for Klebsiella research identified a novel phage family

Article Publication Date

20-Nov-2025

LA REVUE GAUCHE - Left Comment: Search results for BACTERIOPHAGE



Researchers Dr Franklin Nobrega and Rachel Buchanan looking through samples in the phage collection.



Researcher Michelle Lin preparing samples of bacteria and phages for study

Undergraduate student Leo Skingley looking through the online KlebPhaCol collection.

Phages attacking bacteria under the microscope

Microscope image showing new phage family in the KlebPhaCol collection



Credit

University of Southampton