Extinct species of rocket frog described based on a single specimen kept for 62 years

The dried specimen of the amphibian, collected by herpetologist Doris Cochran in 1963 in Brazil, is stored in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History in the United States.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo

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Despite being quite dried out, the only known specimen of the animal allowed it to be identified as a new species to science 

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Credit: Taran Grant/IB-USP

Anyone walking through the Tarumã neighborhood in Curitiba (the capital of the state of Paraná, Brazil) today may find it difficult to imagine the area as it was in the past. Between the buildings, racetrack, and the city’s largest shopping mall, streams, open fields, and wetlands once existed. Back in the 1960s, the area was home to an abundance of biodiversity. In a study supported by FAPESP, researchers described a species of rocket frog that lived in the area. Although it is new to science, the species is probably extinct in the wild.

In a study published in the journal Zootaxa, researchers from the University of São Paulo (USP) in Brazil and the Smithsonian Institution in the United States described the new species, which was named Dryadobates erythropus based on a single specimen collected by American herpetologist Doris M. Cochran (1898-1968) in 1963 during a visit to Brazil with entomologist Doris H. Blake (1892-1978).

The only known specimen of the frog is quite dried out and is housed in the collection of the Smithsonian Institution’s National Museum of Natural History (NMNH-SI) in Washington D.C. in the United States, where Cochran worked for nearly 50 years.

The new species, whose individual is about 14 millimeters long, is considered “probably extinct” because no other specimens have been found in the wild or deposited in natural history museums. It belongs to the recently described genus Dryadobates, which has at least 13 species, seven of which have already been described; four of those species became extinct between the 1960s and 1980s (read more at agencia.fapesp.br/55323). 

“The living species of this genus are diurnal frogs, quite abundant, which would be easy to find in the wild. Given that the habitat of D. erythropus has been destroyed and that no other specimen has been collected in extensive surveys in various locations in São Paulo and Paraná over the last 60 years, it’s most likely extinct,” explains Taran Grant, a professor at the Institute of Biosciences (IB) at USP and the first author of the study.

Grant co-authored the paper with Paulo Durães Pereira Pinheiro, currently a researcher at the NMNH-SI who received a postdoctoral fellowship from FAPESP until 2023.

Dryadobates comes from Dryades, a nymph in Greek mythology. Naturalist von Martius gave this name to the Atlantic Forest in his work Flora Brasiliensis. The suffix “bates” means “one who walks.” Erythropus refers to “red foot,” the nickname given to rural workers who worked barefoot on the reddish soil characteristic of northern Paraná.

Three other species of the genus had already been named after the states where they were found: D. alagoanus, D. carioca, and D. capixaba; the latter two are apparently extinct.

Field diary

To determine the precise location where the frog was collected, Grant consulted other records in addition to the information written on the label attached to the animal. The Smithsonian Institution, with which the museum is affiliated, has a large archive dedicated to its researchers.

In the material referring to Cochran, Grant found her travel diary from Brazil. The document was essential in determining the animal’s location. Grant explains, “Based on what we knew about the distribution of this group, when we saw the reference to Curitiba, we thought it might have been confused with an animal collected in Rio de Janeiro, where it had been before.”

However, the animal’s characteristics do not match those Cochran described as having been collected in a lagoon and on its banks in Rio de Janeiro. In contrast, the Tarumã notes from January 9, 1963, clearly state that two frogs were captured in a “large field full of anthills and cow-chewed bushes.”

The location of the described frog is now about 550 kilometers south of the closest known species, D. olfersioides, in the municipality of Angra dos Reis in the state of Rio de Janeiro – which is also extinct. This great distance suggests that there were other populations of the genus between these two locations, whether of the described species or of extinct species that may never be identified.

Museomics and historical DNA

Of the seven species of Dryadobates that have been formally described thus far, three were only identified thanks to historical DNA (hDNA). In some cases, this technique can recover genetic material from animals that have been preserved in museums for over 100 years.

As part of his FAPESP-supported project, which enabled the installation of a laboratory for this type of analysis at USP, Grant attempted to extract hDNA from the frog collected by Doris Cochran in 1963. He was unsuccessful.

“The curator of the museum where the specimen is stored authorized us to remove a small piece of tissue for DNA extraction, but we were unable to find sufficient genetic material from the frog, only contamination from human DNA and bacteria,” he says.

Due to the specimen’s state of preservation, Grant believes the animal died before being fixed in alcohol while still in the collection bag. This hypothesis is reinforced by the presence of sand adhering to the frog’s skin. Therefore, the DNA probably began to degrade much earlier than it would have if the frog had been preserved in alcohol, a process that preserves molecules that can be identified later.

Museomics techniques allow the recovery of DNA fragments with at least 20 nucleotides, which are then combined to assemble larger sequences. However, the DNA of Cochran’s dried frog is so degraded that it was impossible to identify fragments larger than 20 nucleotides, making molecular identification impossible. “Who knows, with advances in technology, this genetic identification may be possible in the future,” the researcher says.

Even without genetic data, the authors point to morphological characteristics that distinguish the animal from its northern relatives, enabling its classification as a new species.

For Grant, this work is important not only as another reminder of the need to constantly sample and protect natural areas but also as a tribute to the historical figures Doris Cochran and Doris Blake, two women scientists who traveled the world and made significant contributions to their fields of research. “If it weren’t for them, we wouldn’t know that we once had this species,” Grant concludes.

About São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP)
The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) is a public institution with the mission of supporting scientific research in all fields of knowledge by awarding scholarships, fellowships and grants to investigators linked with higher education and research institutions in the State of São Paulo, Brazil. FAPESP is aware that the very best research can only be done by working with the best researchers internationally. Therefore, it has established partnerships with funding agencies, higher education, private companies, and research organizations in other countries known for the quality of their research and has been encouraging scientists funded by its grants to further develop their international collaboration. You can learn more about FAPESP at www.fapesp.br/en and visit FAPESP news agency at www.agencia.fapesp.br/en to keep updated with the latest scientific breakthroughs FAPESP helps achieve through its many programs, awards and research centers. You may also subscribe to FAPESP news agency at http://agencia.fapesp.br/subscribe.

Dryadobates bokermanni, which lives in southern Bahia, is one of seven described species of the same genus, which may have 13 in total 

Credit

Taran Grant/IB-USP

Journal

Zootaxa

DOI

10.11646/zootaxa.5693.4.9 

Article Title

A recently extinct new species of Dryadobates (Anura: Aromobatidae) from South Brazil: species description and implications for the historical distribution and recent extinction history of the clade

 

Cleveland’s famous sea monster gets a scientific update

New research reveals Dunkleosteus was an oddball among ancient armored fishes

Case Western Reserve University

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Newly described muscle anatomy (right) and overall jaw anatomy of Dunkleosteus terrelli (center), compared to a more typical arthrodire (left)

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Credit: Russell Engelman/Case Western Reserve University

CLEVELAND—About 360 million years ago, the shallow sea above present-day Cleveland was home to a fearsome apex predator: Dunkleosteus terrelli. This 14-foot armored fish ruled the Late Devonian seas with razor-sharp bone blades instead of teeth, making it among the largest and most ferocious arthrodires—an extinct group of shark-like fishes covered in bony armor across their head and torso.

Since its discovery in the 1860s, Dunkleosteus has captivated scientists and the public alike, becoming one of the most recognizable prehistoric animals. Casts of its bony-plated skull and imposing mouthparts can be seen on display in museums around the world. Despite its fame, this ancient predator has remained scientifically neglected for nearly a century.

Now an international team of researchers led by Case Western Reserve University has published a detailed study of Dunkleosteus in The Anatomical Record, revealing a new understanding of the ancient armored predator.

Despite being the literal “poster child” for the arthrodire group, Dunkleosteus actually was not like most of its kin, and was in fact, a bit of an oddball.

Filling a 90-year knowledge gap

“The last major work examining the jaw anatomy of Dunkleosteus in detail was published in 1932, when arthrodire anatomy was still poorly understood,” said Russell Engelman, a graduate student in biology at Case Western Reserve and lead author. “Most of the work at that time focused on just figuring out how the bones fit back together."

Arthrodire fossils can be difficult to work with. Their remains are often crushed and flattened and had bodies mostly made of cartilage; only their bony head and torso armor are regularly preserved.

“Since the 1930s, there have been significant advances in our understanding of arthrodire anatomy, particularly from well-preserved fossils from Australia,” Engelman said. “More recent studies have tried biomechanical modeling of Dunkleosteus, but no one has really gone back and looked at what the bones themselves say about muscle attachments and function.”

The team, including researchers from Australia, Russia, the United Kingdom and Cleveland, has brought Dunkleosteus into the modern era of paleontology by analyzing specimens from the Cleveland Museum of Natural History—home to the world's largest and best-preserved collection of Dunkleosteus fossils.

Dunkleosteus likely lived around the world during the Devonian period, but conditions in Cleveland allowed for a bonanza of skeletal remains to be preserved in the ancient seafloor, now a layer of black shale rock exposed by area rivers and road construction projects.

Surprising discoveries

The researchers’ detailed anatomical analysis revealed several unexpected findings:

• A cartilage-heavy skull: Nearly half of Dunkleosteus’ skull was composed of cartilage, including most major jaw connections and muscle attachment sites—far more than previously assumed.

• Shark-like jaw muscles: The team identified a large bony channel housing a facial jaw muscle similar to those in modern sharks and rays, providing some of the best evidence for this feature in ancient fishes.
• An evolutionary oddball: Despite being the poster child for arthrodires, Dunkleosteus was unusual among its relatives. Most arthrodires had actual teeth, which Dunkleosteus and its close relatives lost in favor of their iconic bone blades.

Rewriting arthrodire evolution

Perhaps most importantly, the study places Dunkleosteus in proper evolutionary context. The bone-blade specializations of Dunkleosteus and its relatives reflect increasing adaptation for hunting other large fishes—features that evolved independently in other arthrodire groups as well. The blades allowed these predators to bite chunks out of large prey, Engelman explained.

“These discoveries highlight that arthrodires cannot be thought of as primitive, homogenous animals, but instead a highly diverse group of fishes that flourished and occupied many different ecological roles during their history,” Engelman said.

The findings transform our understanding of both Dunkleosteus specifically and arthrodire diversity more broadly, showing that even the most famous fossils can still yield new insights.

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As one of the fastest-growing research universities in the United States, Case Western Reserve University is a force in career-defining education and life-changing research. Across our campus, more than 12,000 students from around the world converge to seek knowledge, find solutions and accelerate their impact. They learn from and collaborate with faculty members renowned for expertise in medicine, engineering, science, law, management, dental medicine, nursing, social work and the arts. And with our location in Cleveland—a hub of cultural, business and healthcare activity—our students gain unparalleled access to academic, research, clinical and entrepreneurial opportunities that prepare them to join our network of more than 125,000 alumni worldwide. Visit case.edu to see why Case Western Reserve University is built for those driven to be a force in the world.

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Journal

The Anatomical Record

Article Title

Functional anatomy, jaw mechanisms, and feeding behavior of Dunkleosteus terrelli

Article Publication Date

20-Nov-2025

 

The batman effect: The mere sight of the 'superhero' makes us more altruistic

A study from the Università Cattolica in Milan campus shows the impact of an unexpected event on our prosocial behavior.

Universita Cattolica del Sacro Cuore

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If 'Batman' appears on the scene, we immediately become more altruistic: in fact, research conducted by psychologists from the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, Milan, shows that the sudden appearance of something unexpected—Batman—disrupts the predictability of everyday life and forces people to be present, breaking free from autopilot. The study was published in the journal "npj mental health research," a Nature publication, and was led by Francesco Pagnini, Full Professor of Clinical Psychology at the Faculty of Psychology, Università Cattolica.

Prosocial behavior, or the act of helping others, is essential to social life, yet the spontaneous environmental factors that trigger such behavior remain little explored. This study tested the ability of an unexpected event, such as the presence of a person dressed as Batman, to increase prosocial behavior by interrupting routines and increasing people's attention to the present moment.

"We conducted an experimental field study on the Milan subway," Professor Pagnini explains, "observing the behavior of 138 passengers. In the first part of our test (control condition), an experimenter, apparently pregnant, boarded the train with an observer." The experts assessed the passengers' tendency to give up their seats for the pregnant woman.

In the experimental condition, another experimenter dressed as Batman entered the scene from another door of the train. Faced with this

unexpected encounter, passengers were significantly more likely to offer their seats: 67.21% of passengers offered their seats in the presence of Batman, or more than two out of three, compared to 37.66% in the control experiment, or just over one out of three.

 

Furthermore, the professor notes, 44% of those who offered their seats in the experimental condition reported not having seen Batman. These results suggest that unexpected events can promote prosociality, even in the absence of awareness, with implications for encouraging kindness in public settings.

 

"Our findings," he explains, "are similar to those of previous research linking present-moment awareness (mindfulness) to greater prosociality; this may create a context in which individuals become more attuned to social cues. However, Professor Pagnini adds, "unlike traditional mindfulness interventions that require active engagement, this study highlights how situational interruptions alone may be sufficient to produce similar effects. This suggests a potential mechanism through which novelty and unpredictability promote prosocial behavior, strengthening theories linking attentional shifts to increased social responsiveness. Finally, it is also possible that the superhero figure enhanced the relevance of cultural values, gender roles, and norms of chivalrous help, consistent with research on the 'priming' effect associated with superheroes: the figure of Batman," he concludes, "could therefore play a prosocial priming role."

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Journal

npj Mental Health Research

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Unexpected events and prosocial behavior: the Batman effect

Article Publication Date

3-Nov-2025

 

Will my kid be a pro athlete? Study finds what parents think

Most parents have realistic beliefs, but a big minority don’t

Parental Expectations for Children's Future Athletic Achievement: The Roles of Socio-Economic Status, Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Athletic Experiences and Identities

Ohio State University

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COLUMBUS, Ohio – Many children grow up dreaming – or maybe even expecting – that they will become a star in football, basketball or whatever their favorite sport may be.

 

Most parents have more realistic expectations of their children’s future athletic achievement, a new study finds. But a substantial minority believe their kids will beat the odds and become collegiate, pro or even Olympic athletes.

 

In a survey of 785 American parents, 34% thought it was somewhat or very likely that their child would become a small-college athlete, 27% thought it was likely they would become a college scholarship athlete, and 17% thought it was somewhat or very likely they would become a professional or Olympic athlete.

 

“Most parents seem to have realistically pessimistic expectations about how much their children might achieve in sports,” said Chris Knoester, co-author of the study and professor of sociology at The Ohio State University.

 

“But there were sometimes wide differences in expectations depending on a variety of factors, including parents’ race and ethnicity, socioeconomic status, neighborhood they lived in, sports fandom and whether they thought their child had a strong identity as an athlete.”

 

Knoester conducted the study, published recently in the Journal of Sport and Social Issues, with lead author Christopher McLeod, associate professor of health and human performance at the University of Florida.

 

One factor in particular had a strong impact on parental expectations, McLeod said.

 

“When parents believe their child thinks of themselves as an athlete, and has a strong athletic identity, that seems to be an on switch for parents to have these very high expectations,” he said.

 

The study was based on adults who participated in the National Sports and Society Survey (NSASS), sponsored by Ohio State’s Sports and Society Initiative. The researchers used data on the adults in the survey who were parents of a child aged 6-17 and living at home. If they had more than one child, one child was selected for them to focus on in the survey.

 

Those surveyed volunteered to participate through the American Population Panel, run by Ohio State’s Center for Human Resource Research. Participants, who came from all 50 states, answered the survey online between the fall of 2018 and spring of 2019.

 

Results showed that parents who thought their child had a strong athletic identity were up to 80 percentage points more likely to believe their child would become a college athlete than parents who didn’t think that their child thought of themselves as an athlete “at all.” The gap was 35 percentage points when parents considered whether their child would become a pro or Olympic athlete.

 

“This shows how parents are responding to their children’s interest and abilities in sports and what they think about themselves, in connection, and really become invested in this belief they may very well succeed,” Knoester said.

 

Overall, the study found that the older their children were, the lower the expectations that parents had of future athletic success.

 

“This suggests to me that many parents are thinking rationally about this, and as their children reach certain milestones, they reevaluate their expectations and realize their children probably aren’t going to be extraordinarily successful athletes,” McLeod said.

 

The study found that the gender of the child and the parents did not have an impact on expectations for a child’s athletic success, which surprised the researchers, who expected higher expectations for boys’ success.

 

Findings showed that Black and Latino parents were more likely than white parents to believe their children would succeed as athletes. That may be because sports are generally seen by some racial and ethnic groups as particularly attractive and valuable pursuits and the best way they have to succeed in society, in some instances, the researchers said.

 

But the neighborhood racial makeup also seemed to matter over and beyond the racial and ethnic makeup of the families. For example, parents who lived in neighborhoods with virtually all white families thought there was about a 30% chance their child would become a small-college athlete, compared to 52% for those with a mostly minority population.

 

“There may be cultural and peer group influences in neighborhoods that influence whether parents think their children could reach a higher level of athletic success, Knoester said.

 

And those from lower socioeconomic backgrounds were more likely to believe their children would become pro or Olympic athletes than those from higher socioeconomic backgrounds, although they did not think their children were more likely to become college athletes.

 

Even sports fandom played a role, the study found.

 

“Parents who were stronger sports fans were more optimistic or keen on expecting their kids to become an elite athlete,” Knoester said.

 

Even though a majority of parents surveyed seemed to have realistic expectations of their children’s chance of athletic success, the substantial minority who predicted success was still much higher than would be possible, Knoester noted.

 

Only about 7% of high school athletes continue to play sports in college. And the odds of becoming a pro athlete are much smaller than that. For example, the NCAA estimates that only 1.5% of NCAA football players get drafted into the NFL.

 

“We should be concerned about people putting too much focus on their child becoming a high-level elite athlete, given the odds that it is most likely not going to happen for the overwhelming majority,” Knoester said.

 

“There needs to be a Plan B if the athletic dreams and aspirations don’t work out.”

 

What this study does, McLeod said, is point to which parents are most at risk of having these unrealistically high expectations.

 

“Our findings can help target educational messaging around parental pressures and behaviors most likely to be associated with overly high expectations,” McLeod said.

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Journal

Journal of Sport and Social Issues

DOI

10.1177/0193723525139253 

Method of Research

Data/statistical analysis

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Parental Expectations for Children's Future Athletic Achievement: The Roles of Socio-Economic Status, Race, Ethnicity, Gender, and Athletic Experiences and Identities

Article Publication Date

24-Nov-2025