Sovereign Wealth Funds Need Legal Clarity As Their Scale And Mandates Expand – Analysis

July 23, 2026 
By Yan Liu

Sovereign wealth funds have become some of the most powerful players in global finance. They now manage more than $16 trillion in total assets, up from about $3 trillion in 2008. Their ability to act nimbly, diversify public wealth, and invest for the long-term have important and lasting benefits for citizens today and future generations.

As funds have grown, their mandates have rapidly expanded beyond cushioning government budgets and stewarding intergenerational savings to roles as diverse as building infrastructure and implementing social and industrial policy. Increasing geopolitical fragmentation has intensified the appeal of these funds as countries seek to be more self-reliant. Funds can boost domestic resilience, preserve national wealth, advance national development objectives, and foster economic dynamism. With projects spanning private equity, real estate, and technology, they have become some of the world’s most influential investors.


While these funds are key players in managing public funds, their massive and complex footprint could pose critical vulnerabilities. Vague and overlapping mandates can weaken accountability and weigh on performance. Weak governance can allow misappropriation, as shown by the high-profile failures of some funds. Funds operating as parallel fiscal authorities and bond buyers without clear fiscal anchoring may risk distorting government budgets, obscuring public debts, and complicating tax treatment cross-border.


Looking across borders, funds partnering on projects concentrate their risk exposures, making a shock to one investor a risk to all. National objectives may also diverge, for instance one partner prioritizes domestic job creation while another focuses on financial returns, weakening governance and investor credibility. And if relations among partner countries sour, it can be difficult to protect assets or exit a project.

These vulnerabilities can be mitigated, however, through strong laws. Internationally accepted guidelines and practices such as the Santiago Principles, developed in 2008 by 26 funds with IMF support, have served as a valuable guide. However, as funds have grown significantly in size, complexity and diversity since then, it is important to examine more closely how funds are structured and governed.
Getting mandates right

Start with the mandate, the binding legal framework that serves as an institutional roadmap by specifying fund objectives, functions, and powers.


When clearly articulated, these objectives anchor decision-making and align investment strategies with national priorities. Commodity exporters, for instance, prioritize short-term fiscal stabilization, as shown by Chile’s Economic and Social Stabilization Fund. Wealthier economies focus on long-term savings, as seen with Norway’s Government Pension Fund Global, the New Zealand Superannuation Fund, and the Future Ireland Fund.

The Indonesia Investment Authority, meanwhile, demonstrates how emerging and developing economies tend to emphasize development objectives, including economic diversification. In some circumstances, multiple objectives may be warranted. In historically oil-dependent economies such as the United Arab Emirates, wealth funds may combine stabilization and economic diversification roles. For Singapore’s two funds, by contrast, the overriding objective is long-term savings, with Temasek supporting strategic sectors and domestic economic development, while GIC invests internationally.

Pursuing multiple mandates, however, can involve difficult tradeoffs. Clear purpose is essential for guiding fund managers while preserving each mandate’s binding force. Overly broad mandates with multiple and potentially conflicting objectives in a single fund can create risks. Risks are heightened when mandates expand without corresponding governance and oversight adjustments.

Legal separation—whether through separate funds or clearly segregated sub-funds—is often a better way to pursue different mandates while ensuring clarity and operational coherence. The Nigeria Sovereign Investment Authority provides a clear example, with its stabilization, future generations, and infrastructure funds legally ring‑fenced. Norway, meanwhile, operates a single fund as a long-term savings vehicle, investing exclusively abroad with a strong legal framework. Its stabilization function is achieved through the fiscal framework, which limits annual budget transfers to expected returns on the fund.


These examples also highlight that a fund’s legal form should follow its mandate. Stabilization funds designed to manage liquidity and short‑term fiscal volatility are often structured simply as accounts managed by separate units in central banks or treasuries. Savings funds, which typically pursue higher‑risk, less liquid investments, require a more extensive legal framework, including independent boards with fiduciary duties and robust internal controls. As some funds assume domestic and strategic roles, they may resemble state‑owned holding companies, and be better governed under corresponding law.
Governance and integration

Once the legal form is fit for purpose, the next step is grounding governance in law with statutory allocation of powers, enforceable fiduciary duties, transparent reporting, and effective oversight. As wealth funds move into more complex direct and unlisted investments, governing bodies must be legally empowered to exercise informed, independent supervision of partnerships and transactions. Laws requiring that board members have a balanced set of skills and expertise, institutionalized audit and risk management, and robust internal control functions act together to ensure good governance.

To avoid funds serving as shadow treasuries—without institutional controls and oversight, or with undue political influence—they should be explicitly integrated into the broader fiscal and public finance legal framework.

Funds are best placed to enjoy operational autonomy when it is clearly defined in law. This includes defining rules on deposit and withdrawal and oversight by the legislature and civil society. Coherence between a fund’s legal framework and fiscal laws is essential to its resilience and legitimacy, and the overall effectiveness of public spending.
Legal backbone

Given sovereign wealth funds’ growing scale and strategic importance, robust legal frameworks are essential to ensure each best serves the people of their countries. They also help ensure the sector can help foster global financial stability. Law should be the foundation of funds’ effectiveness, not a constraint.

The Santiago Principles underpin governance. But growing complexity calls for renewed scrutiny of their assumptions, and more targeted operational guidance to translate them into robust domestic legal frameworks. Since these high-level principles were largely designed for passive, index‑based investors, they do not fully capture the more granular governance and disclosure issues raised by today’s more active investment models, including state-owned enterprises, direct investments, unlisted equity stakes, private equity transactions, and co-investments.

Through bilateral and multilateral surveillance, financial-sector assessments, and technical assistance, the IMF supports countries in anchoring funds in sound public law, fiscal discipline, and public accountability. Applying the Santiago Principles meaningfully in today’s transformed investment landscape requires the renewed collective engagement of all stakeholders. The IMF is ready to support such efforts.

Source: This article was published by IMF Blog

About Yan Liu
Yan Liu is General Counsel and Director of the Legal Department of the International Monetary Fund. She advises the IMF’s Executive Board, management, staff, and country membership on all legal aspects of the Fund’s operations, including its lending, surveillance, capacity development, regulatory and advisory functions.
View all posts by Yan Liu →

 

Most powerful Northern Lights in a generation 'exposed weaknesses in UK infrastructure'

Royal Astronomical Society

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Millions of people across the UK marvelled at the spectacular Northern Lights that lit up the night sky in May 2024. But while the display captivated skywatchers, the geomagnetic storm behind it also served as the biggest test in a generation of the UK's preparedness for severe space weather.

So did it pass?

Unfortunately not, according to scientists from the Space Environment Impacts Expert Group (SEIEG). They identified multiple infrastructure threats that the storm exposed and made 14 recommendations to better protect British electricity supplies, satellites, aviation and other critical infrastructure from future space weather events.

The group's findings were presented this week at the Royal Astronomical Society's National Astronomy Meeting in Birmingham by SEIEG Chair Professor Richard Horne, of the British Antarctic Survey.

The May 2024 storm reached G5 – the highest category on the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) geomagnetic storm scale. The storm's strength came from the combined effects of five successive coronal mass ejections striking Earth one after the other over the course of two days.

While that specific storm caused relatively minor disruption in the UK, it highlighted large gaps in the country's resilience to more severe events. The team's recommendations include better monitoring of the electricity grid, strengthening satellite operations, enhancing aviation preparedness and developing more accurate space weather forecasts.

Professor Horne said: "The Northern Lights were the most visible sign of the May 2024 storm, but they were only one part of a much broader space weather event that tested the UK's critical infrastructure. The storm highlighted where we need better monitoring, better forecasting and more research so we're prepared for a more severe event in the future."

The recommendations were submitted to the government and are now under consideration.

The May 2024 storm was estimated to be around a one-in-13-year event. By comparison, a Carrington-class event on the scale of the great solar storm of 1859 has an estimated 1 per cent chance of occurring in any given year, making even more severe space weather a realistic future risk.

One of the key concerns is the electricity network. Geomagnetic storms can drive electrical currents through power transmission systems, potentially damaging transformers and disrupting electricity supplies. 

Professor Horne said: "During the May 2024 event, computer models suggested currents exceeded 50 amps at several substations, with a peak of around 68 amps. However, because there are currently no instruments measuring these currents anywhere in England or Wales, those estimates cannot even be checked."

The team recommends the deployment of a network of geomagnetically induced current monitors across England and Wales to determine how much current different transformer types can safely withstand. They note that New Zealand, which experiences comparable space weather conditions because it sits at a similar geomagnetic latitude as the UK in the opposite hemisphere, already monitors more than 80 transformer sites and successfully used its mitigation plans during the May 2024 storm.

The storm also highlighted growing challenges in Earth's increasingly crowded low-Earth orbit. Almost 5,000 satellites carried out manoeuvres during the storm, compared with around 300 before it began, while UK-licensed satellites experienced a 35 per cent increase in collision warnings. Further work is needed to understand how severe space weather could increase the risk of collisions and cascading debris events, in which satellite collisions create debris that can trigger further collisions.

The team also calls for improved forecasting of coronal mass ejections and solar energetic particle events, with a long-term goal of providing reliable forecasts of severe geomagnetic storms two to three hours before they strike Earth. Better warnings would allow operators of power grids, satellites and aircraft to take action before the worst impacts occur.

Professor Horne said: "One of the biggest lessons from the May 2024 storm is that we still have important gaps in our monitoring and understanding of how severe space weather could affect UK infrastructure.

"We were fortunate that this was not a one-in-100-year event. We now have an opportunity to strengthen our monitoring, improve our forecasts and make sure the UK is better prepared before a much larger storm occurs."

ENDS

Images & captions

Image 1: VIIRS satellite image showing the aurora borealis over the Northern Hemisphere on 10–11 May.

https://drive.google.com/file/d/1UCD6cfUHJG6FspaCM1SBQvwFG6sOtv6q/view?usp=drive_link 

Credit: NOAA / Public Domain

 

Image 2: Aurora borealis seen over the south coast of England, produced by the May 2024 solar storm.

https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:May_2024_Aurora_Borealis_from_South_Coast_UK.jpg 

Credit: TheresNoTime / CC BY-SA 4.0

 

Image 3: Aurora borealis seen over Cwmbran, Wales, produced by the May 2024 solar storm. 

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_2024_solar_storms#/media/File:Aurora_Borealis_from_Cwmbran,_Wales.png 

Credit: THEORACLE / CC BY-SA 4.0

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Further information

• The SEIEG is an independent committee of experts drawn from academia, research institutes, companies and agencies. Its purpose is to assess the science related to space weather, review the impact on people and modern infrastructure and provide support and advice to the UK Met Office and government departments.
• The May 2024 solar activity produced multiple eruptions between 7 and 11 May, but the Earth-directed coronal mass ejections that drove the storm in this study arrived from the evening of 10 May into 11 May.
• During a geomagnetic storm, changes in Earth’s magnetic field create electric fields at ground level called geomagnetically induced currents (GICs). These electric fields can drive unwanted electrical currents through long conductive systems such as power lines, pipelines and railway signalling networks. In electricity grids, GICs can flow through transformers. Large currents can cause transformers to overheat, behave abnormally or, in extreme cases, become damaged and contribute to power outages. 
• New Zealand provides a useful case study because it is at a similar geomagnetic latitude to the UK and has already done several things the UK has not: 
  • NZ monitors GICs at around 93 transformers across 28 substations, whereas England and Wales currently have no direct GIC monitoring. 
  • NZ has validated its models against real measurements. 
  • NZ has operational mitigation procedures that were used successfully during the May 2024 storm.

 

The talk 'The May 2024 Geomagnetic Storm: UK Experience and Research Needs' took place at NAM2026 at 15:30 BST on Monday 20 July 2026 in room TLC118/119. Find out more at: https://uobevents-national-astronomy-meeting-2026.eventsairsite.com/block-schedule. If you would like a Zoom link to watch it back, please email press@ras.ac.uk

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Notes for editors

About the Royal Astronomical Society

The Royal Astronomical Society (RAS), founded in 1820, encourages and promotes the study of astronomy, solar-system science, geophysics and closely related branches of science.

The RAS organises scientific meetings, publishes international research journals, recognises outstanding achievements by the award of medals and prizes, maintains an extensive library, supports education through grants and outreach activities and represents UK astronomy nationally and internationally. Its more than 4,000 members (Fellows), a third based overseas, include scientific researchers in universities, observatories and laboratories as well as historians of astronomy and others.

The RAS accepts papers for its journals based on the principle of successful peer review, following which experts on the Editorial Boards accept the papers for publication. The Society issues press releases based on a similar principle, but the organisations and scientists concerned have overall responsibility for their content.

Keep up with the RAS on Instagram, Bluesky, LinkedIn, Facebook and YouTube.

Download the RAS Supermassive podcast

 

About the Science and Technology Facilities Council

The Science and Technology Facilities Council (STFC), part of UK Research and Innovation (UKRI), is the UK’s largest public funder of research into astronomy and astrophysics, particle and nuclear physics, and space science. We operate five national laboratories across the UK which, supported by a network of additional research facilities, increase our understanding of the world around us and develop innovative technologies in response to pressing scientific and societal issues. We also facilitate UK involvement in a number of international research activities including the ELT, CERN, the James Webb Space Telescope and the Square Kilometre Array Observatory.

linkedin.com/company/stfc 

ukri.org/councils/stfc

 

About The University of Birmingham

The University of Birmingham is ranked amongst the world's top 100 institutions. Its work brings people from across the world to Birmingham, including researchers, educators and more than 40,000 students from over 150 countries.

England’s first civic university, the University of Birmingham, is proud to be rooted in one of the most dynamic and diverse cities in the country. A member of the Russell Group and a founding member of the Universitas 21 global network of research universities, the University of Birmingham has been changing the way the world works for more than a century.

The University of Birmingham is committed to achieving operational net zero carbon. It is seeking to change society and the environment positively, and use its research and education to make a major global contribution to the UN Sustainable Development Goals. Find out more about our approach to sustainability.

 

Australian cave discovery shows grass was burned for magic, healing, and cursing for 25,000 years

Perfectly preserved ‘phytolith’ plant crystals reveal that indigenous Australians took grasses into cave for ritual burning since last Ice Age

Frontiers

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image: 

GunaiKurnai Elder Uncle Russell Mullett at the cave entrance of Cloggs Cave

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Credit: Jess Shapiro, courtesy of GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation

The GunaiKurnai, an Australian Aboriginal nation, are the acknowledged traditional custodians of Gippsland and the southern Victorian Alps. Within their territory are caves, known from 19th-century ethnographic reports and oral traditions to have been the setting for magic, healing, and cursing rituals by powerful learned women and men called ‘mulla-mullung’, as well as by other spiritual practitioners. Archaeologists have shown that people have been visiting one of these caves, Cloggs Cave, for such activities over the past 25,000 years.

“Here we show that the Old Ancestors selected whole grasses from the wider landscape and carried them into Cloggs Cave to spread out in thin layers and burn. Over time, sediments covered these burnt layers, preserving each layer on top of another over thousands of years,” said Dr Elle Grono, a postdoctoral researcher at the Australian National University and the corresponding author of a new study published in Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology.

Phytoliths and a standing stone

Grono and colleagues from Australia, France, and New Zealand studied the phytoliths – microscopic silica bodies from plant tissues – recovered from buried deposits in Cloggs Cave. The study was part of archaeological excavations undertaken in 2019 and 2020 that aimed to understand how people gathered plants for use inside the cave in the past. These excavations had been requested by the GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation, with representatives of the GunaiKurnai community taking part in the study design, fieldwork, interpretations, and dissemination of the results.

“Unlike pollen, which is dispersed by wind or insects, phytoliths mostly accumulate at the spot where a plant decays. No plants grow inside the cave due to a lack of light, so the phytoliths must have been carried in by people or by animals such as possums on their fur or through their scats,” explained Grono. “We focused on half-burnt phytoliths from ashy layers, which can only have been brought in by people, as unburnt ones might have arrived through either means.”

The scientists used microscopy to assign taxonomic groups to thousands of phytoliths from two pits, respectively 1.5 m and 2.3 m deep. The top strata of these pits consisted of 73 thin ashy layers laid down by people between approximately 4,400 and 1,600 years ago, as calculated by optically stimulated luminescence and carbon dating via accelerator mass spectrometry. Within those ashy layers, they unexpectedly uncovered a 28-cm-high standing stone, subsequently shown to have been erected in the cave by Old Ancestors for ritual purposes around 2,000 years ago.

Grasses preferred

In total, the authors found 29 different types of phytoliths from a range of plant groups including grasses, herbs, and woody plants. They were mostly well preserved, with even the most delicate silica structures such as hair cells surviving pristine. The most abundant (up to 97%) were from grasses, both from the subfamily Pooideae which prefer temperate or cool climates, and from Panicoideae which mostly grow under warm and humid conditions. Phytoliths from the Chloridoideae family, drought-resistant grasses that grow well in warm, dry arid environments were less common, while those from woody plants and herbs were rare.

The Old Ancestors were very selective as to which types of plants they brought into the cave. They avoided diverse species from the riparian forest and open woodland found in the vicinity of Cloggs Cave before European settlement, and instead targeted grasses that would have been available a short distance away from the cave entrance.

“The phytoliths found at Cloggs Cave were from different parts of grass plants such as stems, leaves, flowers and roots, indicating that whole grasses were brought in, including the inedible parts,” said Grono.

Overall, nearly a fifth – up to 18% – of the phytoliths were burnt or melted. Their presence throughout the dated deposits implied that people had brought plants into the cave and burnt them there over the entire time-span of the past 25,000 years.

Professor Bruno David from Monash University who co-led the excavations with GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation concludes that “their burning is consistent with GunaiKurnai traditional practices of using ash to perform magic and rituals, and also to track the footsteps of anyone coming in, including spirit-Beings. Other macro-botanical evidence such as fat-smeared trimmed wooden sticks from Casuarina trees were also found in deeper and older deposits, indicating that other kinds of rituals using woody plants were also performed.”

A 2,000 year-old standing stone, depicted during excavations. Burnt phytoliths came from the ashy layers surrounding the standing stone

Credit

Bruno David, courtesy of GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Corporation

Microscopic images of burnt grass phytoliths from Cloggs Cave. Most of the images depict phytoliths from the inflorescences and leaves of grasses. The scale bar indicates 20 microns. Refer to the journal article for details.

Credit

Grono, David, Mullett, Stevenson, Petchey, Delannoy, McDowell, Miller, Morley, Fresløv, Jenkin and GunaiKurnai Land and Waters Aboriginal Corporation

Journal

Frontiers in Environmental Archaeology

DOI

10.3389/fearc.2026.1871928 

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Phytoliths from Cloggs Cave, GunaiKurnai Country (southeastern Australia) reveal the gathering of whole grasses for burning practices inside the cave

Article Publication Date

22-Jul-2026

First trial confirms swimming reduces disability from chronic back pain

New evidence that a swimming program improves function and pain in people with back pain validates a commonly recommended but not previously tested exercise

Macquarie University

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Australian research has shown for the first time that a program of swimming can be clinically effective in reducing disability from chronic low back pain. 

Published today in the British Journal of Sports Medicine, the EduSwim clinical trial found an eight-week individualised program of swimming and education, guided by a physiotherapist, improved function and pain significantly more than education alone in people with back pain. 

“Swimming is commonly recommended as an exercise for people with chronic low back pain, but there was a complete lack of evidence about whether it actually works,” said lead researcher Deborah Wareham, a physiotherapist and PhD candidate in the Spinal Pain Research Centre at Macquarie University, Sydney. “We undertook this study because we felt there was an urgent need for research to determine if swimming was effective or not for chronic back pain,” said Ms Wareham. 

The researchers recruited 76 adults aged 26 to 74 (average 41 years) who were experiencing some disability due to low back pain lasting for at least 12 weeks and allocated them at random to one of two groups. One group received an eight-week individualised program of swimming and education, supported by four telehealth coaching sessions with a physiotherapist. “They weren’t regular swimmers, but they were able to swim 25 metres and feel confident in the water,” said Ms Wareham. 

The swimming programme was based on each participant’s current swimming ability and fitness, with a goal of achieving three sessions of 30-45 minutes by the end of the eight weeks. Education covered key concepts and messages including: ‘Pain does not always equal harm’; ‘The back is made for movement’; ‘Flare-ups are likely’; and ‘The best management is to keep moving’. 

Participants in the other (control) group had one to two sessions with a physiotherapist to learn the same key messages about back pain as the intervention group but otherwise continued their usual treatment and activity. 

After eight weeks, disability was significantly lower in the swimming group. 

“They improved by about 50 per cent from where they were before starting the program,” said Ms Wareham. “Compared to the control group who received education only, swimmers scored on average 2.5 points or 30 per cent lower on a widely used disability scale.” 

The benefit of swimming persisted at longer-term follow-up (at 26 and 52 weeks), although the difference between the groups reduced over time. Secondary outcomes – including pain intensity, functional limitation, pain self-efficacy and fear of movement – showed a similar pattern, being lower in the swimming group early in the program, but with the difference reducing over time. 

Best practice guidelines around the world recommend exercise and education as first-line treatments for chronic low back pain, but only some types of exercise (Pilates, for example) have been clinically evaluated, Ms Wareham noted. “In fact, the improvement we saw in our study compares favourably with effects reported for other exercise such as Pilates in a recent meta-analysis,” she said. 

“The argument for swimming in back pain is logical, but it was important to test this,” said Professor Mark Hancock, Co-Director of the Spinal Pain Research Centre and senior author of the study. “Swimming can improve range of motion, strength and general aerobic capacity and the buoyancy of water can help people engage with movements that might otherwise be painful or limited.” 

“Importantly, participants told us swimming built their confidence to start exercising and engage with other meaningful physical activities – some continued to swim after the program, while others transitioned to other forms of exercise,” said Professor Hancock. “Now we have the evidence to support the recommendation – swimming is a suitable exercise for people with back pain, and it helps.” 

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Journal

British Journal of Sports Medicine

DOI

10.1136/bjsports-2026-111730 

Method of Research

Randomized controlled/clinical trial

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Effectiveness of an individualised swimming and education programme for chronic low back pain (EduSwim): a randomised controlled trial

Article Publication Date

21-Jul-2026

COI Statement

This research was supported by a Physiotherapy Research Foundation (PRF) Seeding Grant and an Australia & New Zealand Low Back Pain Research Network (ANZBACK) Seeding Grant. All authors were named investigators for these grants. NCP reports receiving salary support through a 3- year Macquarie University Lighthouse Fellowship (2026–2029). MH and CGM report that their travel costs have been paid to attend and present at conferences. MH and CGM hold a role on the ANZBACK executive committee. CGM reports holding several research grants and a research fellowship from the National Health and Medical Research Council (NHMRC), and multiple grants from the Medical Research Future Fund (MRFF). He has also received grants from New South Wales Health, Ramsay Hospital Research Foundation, HCF Research Foundation, Arthritis Australia, the Australian Rheumatology Association and Royal Prince Alfred Hospital. He received the 2023 Royal Prince Alfred Hospital Research Medal and prize, paid into a hospital account to support research activities. He received a research grant from the São Paulo Research Foundation (2019–2023). He serves on the executive of three NHMRC Centre for Research Excellence–funded research collaborative networks (Wiser Healthcare; Australia and New Zealand Musculoskeletal Clinical Trials Network; Australia and New Zealand Low Back Pain Research Network). JTF, NCP, MH, CGM and DMW are all members of the Australian Physiotherapy Association. JTF is a member of Exercise and Sports Science Australia.

Graham's "hellish" Russian sanctions bill moving forward

The “hellish” package of sanctions proposed by the late Lindsey Graham is making progress through the House after being watered down somewhat. / bne IntelliNews


By Ben Aris in Berlin July 18, 2026


A US sanctions bill originally promoted by the late Senator Lindsey Graham and Democrat Richard Blumenthal has moved close to passage after being stalled in Congress for more than a year. The latest compromise has the support of the White House, Republicans and a significant number of Democrats, The Bell reported on July 18.

The bill has been substantially softened from the original proposal for “hellish sanctions”, which included mandatory tariffs of at least 500% on goods from any country continuing to buy Russian oil, gas, petroleum products or uranium.

Under the revised Sanctioning Russia Act of 2026, tariffs of up to 100% could be imposed on imports from countries that remain among the five largest buyers of Russian oil or gas.

The bill would also allow tariffs of up to 500% on goods imported directly from Russia into the US, although this would have limited economic impact because bilateral trade is already very small.

The White House and senators agreed the compromise text on July 10, and the administration formally confirmed its support three days later.

The bill would require the president to introduce almost the entire sanctions package within 30 days of enactment, regardless of whether Moscow is participating in peace negotiations.

However, Section 115 would give the president very broad authority to suspend virtually any sanction or tariff by notifying Congress in writing that the suspension serves US national interests. Congress would have no power to veto such a temporary suspension.

Sanctions could be terminated permanently only after the president certified that Russia had signed a peace agreement accepted by a “free and independent government of Ukraine”, ended military operations and stopped attempting to overthrow the Ukrainian government.

Congress would then have 30 days to consider the termination and could theoretically oppose it through a joint resolution, although overriding a presidential veto would be difficult.

According to The Bell, the bill gained momentum following Graham’s sudden death on July 11, reportedly from an aortic dissection at the age of 71. By July 16, the new version had more than 60 co-sponsors.

The legislation has also become more attractive to Donald Trump following a February 20 Supreme Court ruling that the International Emergency Economic Powers Act did not permit presidents to impose tariffs unilaterally. The bill would provide explicit congressional authority to impose tariffs on countries buying Russian energy.

The Bell says Trump’s language towards Vladimir Putin has hardened. Trump reportedly complained that “a lot of lies” were coming from Putin and that “he is always very nice, but it means nothing”.

Energy and uranium

The bill would prohibit new US investment in Russia’s energy sector and impose sanctions on managers and major shareholders connected to the Yamal LNG and Arctic LNG projects, affecting Novatek and its foreign partners.

It would enforce the existing US prohibition on Russian uranium imports, including Rosatom products, after transitional exemptions expire at the end of 2027.

Foreign companies supplying goods, services or technology that support sanctioned Russian uranium production could also face US sanctions.

The US prohibition would not directly prevent countries such as Hungary, Slovakia or Turkey from using Russian nuclear fuel. Hungary’s Paks nuclear plant reportedly purchases about €70mn of Russian fuel annually.

Oil-price cap and the shadow fleet

The bill would effectively return the US to the Western oil-price-cap coalition alongside Australia, Canada, the EU, Japan, New Zealand and the UK.

Ships, insurers, captains and ports violating the coalition’s price cap could be sanctioned.

Inclusion of a vessel on sanctions lists maintained by the UK, EU, G7 or Five Eyes intelligence alliance could become sufficient grounds for corresponding US sanctions.

This would narrow the gaps between different sanctions jurisdictions that Russia’s “shadow fleet” has used to continue transporting oil.

Frozen Russian assets

The bill would support using income generated by frozen Russian assets to finance loans to Ukraine, rather than confiscating the underlying assets directly.

About €210bn of Russian assets are frozen in the EU, mainly at Belgium’s Euroclear.

A proposed European “reparations loan” was blocked by Belgium inDecember 2025 because it wanted other EU members to share the legal risks of possible Russian lawsuits.

Personal sanctions and oligarchs

The legislation would place existing sanctions against senior Russian officials — including the president, prime minister, foreign minister, defence minister and security chiefs — into statute.

This would make the sanctions more difficult for a future president to remove unilaterally.

It would also allow sanctions against Russian oligarchs who had not demonstrated opposition to the war or who continued to benefit from links to the authorities.

Financial system

The Bank of Russia would face at least two measures from a list of possible sanctions, rather than necessarily being subjected to complete asset blocking.

Sberbank, VTB, Gazprombank and other state-owned or state-affiliated Russian banks would face a broader package including asset freezes, restrictions under Countering America’s Adversaries Through Sanctions Act (CAATSA) and prohibitions on US correspondent accounts.

Foreign banks conducting “significant transactions” with those Russian banks could face secondary sanctions, potentially affecting Chinese, Indian and Turkish institutions involved in Russian energy sales and parallel imports.

The administration would be required to review such foreign banks every 180 days.

The bill would also target operators of international financial-messaging systems that knowingly facilitated sanctions evasion, although it would not require Russian banks to be disconnected completely from systems such as SWIFT.

What is genuinely new

The Bell identifies two principal new instruments.

The first is pressure on buyers rather than sellers: countries buying large amounts of Russian oil or gas could put their entire export trade with the US at risk through tariffs of up to 100%.

The second is broader use of secondary sanctions against foreign banks handling transactions with Russian state banks, threatening the yuan- and rupee-based payment channels Moscow has built to bypass the dollar system.

If China and India reduced purchases, Russia could be forced to offer larger discounts on Urals crude relative to Brent, reducing federal oil and gas revenues.

Buyers might have to obtain more oil from the Middle East, Africa or the US, which could provide some support for global oil prices.

Main limitation

The bill’s practical impact would depend heavily on whether Trump actually used the powers against major countries such as China and India.

Almost all the measures could be suspended by the president on national-interest grounds.

The sanctions might therefore be used selectively as leverage in unrelated trade negotiations rather than consistently to reduce Russia’s war revenues.

The legislation’s central importance is that it would make economic pressure the default background to negotiations. Moscow could no longer delay sanctions merely by agreeing to talks.

It would also distinguish between a temporary “deal with Trump” and a permanent peace settlement accepted by Ukraine: only the latter would allow sanctions to be removed completely.

Canada’s Gender-Responsive Humanitarian Diplomacy In The Taliban-Controlled Afghanistan (2021-2026) – Analysis

July 20, 2026 
By Abdul Wasi Popalzay

Key Takeaways:

Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy (FIAP) exhibits a structural policy-practice gap in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan, where ambitious gender-equality commitments clash with counter-terrorism legislation (e.g., Bill C-41), diplomatic non-recognition, and humanitarian access requirements, resulting in depoliticized aid delivery and collapsing gender-transformative programming.

Multiple interconnected domains reinforce the gap: restrictive counter-terrorism rules created bureaucratic paralysis (zero development authorizations in 2024 despite applications); humanitarian partners systematically reframe gender objectives into basic-needs language to gain Taliban acquiescence; multilateral legal efforts (CEDAW interstate case, ICC gender-persecution warrants) advance accountability without recognition; and refugee resettlement backlogs leave vulnerable Afghans stranded.

The study proposes “accountability-without-recognition” as an emergent but limited paradigm for feminist humanitarian diplomacy under non-recognized repressive regimes, arguing that legal and diplomatic innovations have strengthened international accountability mechanisms while failing to deliver meaningful improvements in the daily lives and rights of Afghan women and girls.

How do liberal democratic states operationalize feminist foreign policy commitments when the governing authority they must work through is both unrecognized and engaged in systematic, state-directed gender persecution? This question has become one of the most consequential unresolved problems in feminist international relations and humanitarian diplomacy studies, not because feminist foreign policy is new, but because the conditions now testing it expose limits in how the relationship between normative commitment, institutional design, and field-level impact is understood. When a state declares gender equality the organizing principle of its international assistance, and the women it aims to support then lose meaningful influence over their own households, falling from 90 percent to 32 percent in a single year, the gap between declaration and outcome demands explanation at a structural level, not an administrative one (UN Women, UNAMA, IOM, 2024).

Existing literature approaches the disjuncture between feminist foreign policy rhetoric and operational reality through two dominant frameworks. The first treats the gap as an implementation problem, attributable to insufficient resources or bureaucratic inertia, correctable through better management and clearer indicators. The second treats it as a coherence problem, attributable to the embedding of feminist commitments inside neoliberal development frameworks that instrumentalize gender equality as a driver of economic growth rather than as a challenge to patriarchal power (Tiessen & Rao, 2025; Esquivel & Sweetman, 2016). Both rest on the assumption that the gap is, in principle, closeable through improved design and political will. Neither accounts for contexts in which the gap is produced not by design failure but by the simultaneous, irreconcilable collision of feminist normative objectives with counter-terrorism governance, humanitarian operational necessity, and the diplomatic non-recognition of the regime whose conduct the policy is designed to challenge.

Despite extensive scholarly investigation into feminist foreign policy, humanitarian diplomacy, and the international response to the Taliban’s return to power, this critical limitation persists: no study has analyzed Canada’s gender-responsive humanitarian engagement in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan as a unified, multi-domain structural phenomenon, tracing the causal connections among its legislative architecture, operational field adaptations, multilateral legal strategy, conceptual contestation over international criminal law categories, and refugee resettlement failures within a single integrated theoretical framework. The consequence is a fragmented literature that treats the FIAP, Bill C-41, the CEDAW interstate dispute, the gender apartheid debate, and the Tajikistan backlog as separate policy problems with separate solutions, when the evidence shows they are interlocking components of a single configuration that reproduces the policy-practice gap across all domains simultaneously. The 2023 Auditor General found that Global Affairs Canada (GAC) cannot demonstrate empirical linkage between its FIAP programs and measurable progress on gender equality (Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2023). The Aid for Afghanistan Coalition documented that Bill C-41 granted zero development authorizations in all of 2024 despite fourteen applications (Public Safety Canada, 2025). The Knowledge Platform Security and Rule of Law found that Canadian-funded partners systematically reframe gender equality objectives into basic-needs vocabulary to secure Taliban acquiescence (KPSRL, 2025). The Harvard Human Rights Journal confirmed that the September 2024 CEDAW interstate dispute is the first invocation of Article 29 in forty-five years of treaty history (Harvard Human Rights Journal, 2025). Each finding appears in a separate literature; none connects them as dimensions of the same problem.


This limitation is acute in Afghanistan, where the Taliban’s governance system, more than seventy decrees excluding women from education, employment, public presence, and legal identity (Right to Learn Afghanistan, 2024), both exemplifies and intensifies tensions identified in the broader feminist foreign policy literature. This gap also reflects disciplinary boundaries that have separated feminist IR academic works from critical security studies, humanitarian diplomacy theory from international legal pluralism, and policy analysis from the ground-level operational realities that implementing partners navigate daily. Afghanistan is not merely a difficult case for feminist foreign policy implementation. It is a critical case that reveals what feminist foreign policy actually is when it operates at the limit of its institutional design, confronting a regime whose foundational purpose is the elimination of the conditions that policy exists to protect.

In response, this study examines Canada’s gender-responsive humanitarian diplomacy in Taliban-controlled Afghanistan from August 2021 to the present, integrating four theoretical layers, Critical Feminist International Relations, Humanitarian Diplomacy and Principled Pragmatism, International Legal Pluralism and the Non-Recognition Doctrine, and Securitization and Counter-Terrorism Governance, into a single framework applied through process-tracing, thematic analysis, and critical discourse analysis across six empirical domains. The article demonstrates that Canada’s policy-practice gap is a structural condition rather than an implementation deficit, theorizes the accountability-without-recognition model as an emergent paradigm for feminist humanitarian diplomacy under non-recognized repressive regimes, and establishes the subnational compromise as a distinct and analytically under-theorized mode of aid delivery that systematically depoliticizes the feminist content it is designed to protect. In doing so, the study addresses a gap that comparative or single-domain research designs, which trade analytical depth for breadth, cannot close.

The Structural Policy-Practice Gap

Canada’s FIAP, launched June 9, 2017, set two binding targets for fiscal year 2021 to 2022: at least 15 percent of bilateral assistance would designate gender equality as its principal objective, and at least 80 percent would integrate it as a significant objective, for a combined 95 percent threshold (Global Affairs Canada, 2017). GAC reported 99 percent compliance by the deadline year, positioning Canada as the OECD-DAC donor committing the greatest share of bilateral official development assistance to gender equality in 2021 (Global Affairs Canada, 2022; Policy Magazine, 2023). Applying Layer One, this figure conceals more than it reveals. In fiscal year 2018 to 2019, while 95 percent of assistance nominally integrated gender equality, only 6.2 percent designated it as the principal objective, far below the 15 percent target (Reality of Aid, 2021; Cooperation Canada, 2022). The policy counts programs where gender is a secondary mention identically to programs built around gender transformation, which Cooperation Canada warned creates incentives for gender-washing (Cooperation Canada, 2022). Deputy Prime Minister Chrystia Freeland’s framing of the policy as both “the right thing to do and the smart way to reduce poverty” (Global Affairs Canada, 2022) captures the instrumentalist logic that critical feminist scholars identify as Western-centric and neoliberal (Tiessen & Rao, 2025; Paterson & Scala, 2020). Deputy Minister Christopher MacLennan’s testimony that GAC does “not always control the denominator,” since COVID-19 and the invasion of Ukraine shifted the composition of Canada’s portfolio (House of Commons Standing Committee on Public Accounts, 2023), confirms that Canada’s feminist commitments are structurally subordinate to broader foreign policy priorities. In Afghanistan, circumstances have never permitted otherwise.


The 2023 Auditor General report, tabling Report 4 on International Assistance in Support of Gender Equality, found GAC unable to demonstrate how roughly $3.5 billion in annual bilateral assistance contributed to improved outcomes for women and girls (Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2023). Twenty-four of twenty-six monitoring indicators measured outputs rather than outcomes; annual reports captured outputs for only about half of GAC-funded projects; and GAC met neither the 15 percent gender-targeted threshold, peaking at 14 percent in 2019 to 2020, nor its 50 percent sub-Saharan Africa allocation target (Office of the Auditor General of Canada, 2023; House of Commons Standing Committee on Public Accounts, 2023). Auditor General Karen Hogan testified that GAC “was unable to demonstrate how Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy contributed to improving gender equality in low- and middle-income countries” (House of Commons Standing Committee on Public Accounts, 2023).

The crisis long predates August 2021. Its structural origins lie in the February 2020 Doha Agreement, which committed Western forces to a staged withdrawal in exchange for Taliban assurances on regional security, without binding protections for Afghan women, representation of Afghan civil society, or accountability for prior rights gains (American Journal of International Law, 2020). The Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security documented that the Taliban’s seizure of Kabul ended more than twenty years of incremental progress in women’s education, labor force participation, and political representation (Georgetown Institute for Women, Peace and Security, 2026). Since the Taliban’s return, the UN Human Rights Council documented more than fifty decrees curtailing women’s rights, including the 2024 Law on the Promotion of Virtue and the Prevention of Vice, which institutionalized these prohibitions at the statutory level (UN Human Rights Council, 2025). Canada condemned these developments through a joint ministerial statement on August 14, 2022, characterizing them as the “steady deterioration” of hard-won human rights (Global Affairs Canada, 2022), yet condemnation did not translate into a revised operational strategy adequate to the scale of what had occurred. Humanitarian financing follows a clear pattern of mobilization followed by retrenchment. The 2022 UN appeal, the largest single-country appeal in UN history at $4.44 billion, received only 54.5 percent of required funding (UN News, 2022; Security Council Report, 2022); by 2024, requirements of $3.06 billion drew only 47 to 53 percent, a confirmed gap of at least $1.43 billion (UN OCHA, 2024; ReliefWeb, 2025). Canada’s own humanitarian disbursements fell from $149.49 million in fiscal year 2021 to 2022 to $44.70 million by 2023 to 2024, a decline of 70.1 percent (Global Affairs Canada Statistical Reports, 2022, 2023, 2024). Of the 22.4 million people reached in the 2024 response, 67 percent received food aid alone, while only 3.1 million, against a target of 7.6 million, received multi-sector support (ReliefWeb, 2025). Of those reached, only a fraction received multi-sector support, as gender-transformative programming was compressed by Taliban interference in beneficiary selection, staff recruitment, and program design, which UN OCHA confirmed required “time-consuming negotiations and workarounds” that delayed registration and implementation (UN OCHA, 2023). The ICRC’s Patrick Hamilton testified that operating under these conditions requires direct engagement with Taliban authorities to secure access (House of Commons Special Committee on Afghanistan, 2022), and the Princeton University Afghanistan Policy Lab found that Taliban interference in aid delivery itself reduces donors’ political will to fund proportionate to need, because the perception that the Taliban benefits materially and reputationally from international assistance undermines the case for sustained financing (Princeton University, 2023). UN Women and UNAMA’s 2024 consultations with 774 women across all 34 provinces recorded that women’s self-reported influence over household decisions fell from 90 to 32 percent between January 2023 and January 2024, and community-level influence from 17 to 1 percent (UN Women, UNAMA, IOM, 2024). Afghan women consulted were twice as likely to prioritize gender equality over economic or humanitarian assistance (UN Women, UNAMA, IOM, 2024). The evidence supports a precise conclusion: the policy-practice gap is a structural condition produced by the simultaneous operation of an instrumentalist framework incapable of transformative function under persecution, an evidentiary infrastructure GAC itself cannot supply, and financing that collapsed as need intensified.

The Legislative Paradox of Bill C-41

In autumn 2021, World Vision Canada had two shipping containers of ready-to-use therapeutic food prepared for Afghanistan, enough to treat approximately 1,800 severely malnourished children. The shipment never left, not for lack of need, but because Canada’s own Criminal Code made delivery legally dangerous (The New Humanitarian, 2022). The Taliban has been listed as a terrorist entity under Canada’s Criminal Code since 2013, and under subsection 83.03(b), providing property or financial services benefiting a listed group is an indictable offence carrying up to ten years’ imprisonment (Senate of Canada, 2022). This made routine transactions, paying rent, clearing customs, covering salary taxes, legally ambiguous, stopping rather than merely slowing Canadian operations. Amy Avis of the Canadian Red Cross testified that “critical programming that includes the provision of midwives in remote areas is no longer being provided…shipments of aid remain paused, and supplies sit ageing in warehouses” (Senate of Canada, 2022); Canada was the only one of fourteen CARE International chapters unable to operate in Afghanistan, and Martin Fischer of World Vision Canada put it plainly: “We can’t do anything” (The New Humanitarian, 2022). The Mennonite Central Committee reported that a local partner’s director took out personal loans to keep staff paid while Canadian funding was frozen (The New Humanitarian, 2022). The United States issued a general license authorizing humanitarian activity six weeks after Kabul fell; the UK, Australia, and New Zealand followed within months. Senator Mobina Jaffer noted that Canada was “the only G7 country that has not found a way to resume aid for life-saving activities in Afghanistan” (Senate of Canada, 2023). Applying Layer Four, once the Taliban was designated a security threat, Canada’s legal architecture treated all contact with Taliban territory as a terrorism-financing risk, suspending ordinary humanitarian decision-making (Buzan, Wæver, & de Wilde, 1998); the humanitarian sector was not excluded from this securitization, it was captured by it.


Bill C-41 received Royal Assent on June 23, 2023, nearly twenty months after Kabul’s fall, passing 299 to 25 (Parliament of Canada, 2023). It created two tracks: a self-executing humanitarian exception under subsection 83.03(4) for life-saving assistance, and a discretionary authorization regime for development, education, and rights-based programming requiring ministerial application and a two-stage security review (Public Safety Canada, 2024). This bifurcation is analytically revealing: life-saving aid receives automatic protection, while the transformative gender equality programming the FIAP mandates requires security clearance. The Conservative Party supported the bill as better than the status quo while urging fast-track assessments for established organizations such as the Red Cross and Doctors Without Borders (Senate of Canada, 2023). The NDP went further, arguing during debate that “the premise of this bill, which involves getting the permission of a government…goes against the humanitarian principles of neutrality, independence and impartiality” (House of Commons, 2023). This is not a procedural objection; when a humanitarian organization must receive government clearance to deliver aid, its perceived neutrality in the field is compromised, and the Taliban, or any armed actor, comes to see Canadian NGOs as operating with government permission, which carries its own security risks. The NDP also noted the bill’s geographic scope extended the authorization requirement to Gaza, Syria, and other terrorist-designated territories, potentially criminalizing foreign aid mobilization across a far wider range of contexts than Afghanistan alone. The Aid for Afghanistan Coalition, representing CARE Canada, World Vision, Islamic Relief, the Canadian Red Cross, and the Canadian Foodgrains Bank, identified five structural problems: risk-shifting of the geographic “substantial control” assessment to individual NGO staff who lack the intelligence capacity to make it responsibly; a discretionary, revocable authorization creating sustained legal uncertainty; vague criteria on undefined links to terrorist financing enabling denial by speculation rather than evidence; beneficiary-screening requirements that violate the impartiality principle of delivering aid solely on the basis of need; and data-sharing requirements creating privacy exposure for aid workers (Canadian Bar Association, 2022; Canadian Charity Law Blog, 2024).


The authorization regime was not launched until June 19, 2024, nearly a year after Royal Assent, and as of December 2024 not a single application had been approved (ICLMG, 2024). The 2024 Annual Report confirmed twelve applications received and zero granted that year, with two finally approved in 2025 (Public Safety Canada, 2025). For roughly eighteen months, every Canadian organization seeking to deliver education, livelihoods, or gender-rights programming remained in bureaucratic suspension. MP Heather McPherson confirmed four years after passage that the system remains a bureaucratic obstruction (McPherson, 2025). Bill C-41 did not resolve the counter-terrorism dilemma; it restructured it, replacing criminal paralysis with bureaucratic paralysis, functioning as what Duffield calls a technology of securitized development governance that extends state security logic into civilian humanitarian space (Duffield, 2007). The Canadian Bar Association observed that restrictive interpretation of subsection 83.03(b) “has a profound impact on the most vulnerable people in Afghanistan, including the women and girls that Canada’s Feminist International Assistance Policy purports to champion” (Canadian Bar Association, 2022).
Subnational Compromise and the Depoliticization of Gender

Where legislative and policy architecture set the outer constraints, the daily operational reality is governed by what researchers term the Humanitarian Aid Plus Plus model: donor funds route through pooled multilateral trust funds to sustain healthcare, education, and livelihood support while maintaining formal non-recognition of Taliban authorities (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 2022; Global Affairs Canada, 2022). Canada committed $118 million to the World Bank’s Afghanistan Resilience Trust Fund (ARTF) from 2020 to 2026, disbursed exclusively through UN agencies and NGO partners with no funds entering Taliban control; total World Bank support through this mechanism exceeded $1.7 billion, reaching more than 25 million Afghans (Open Government Portal, 2024; World Bank, 2024). The UNDP’s Special Trust Fund operates under similarly strict terms barring Taliban influence over beneficiary selection (MPTF UNDP, 2025). The ICRC’s healthcare agreements route payments directly to hospital staff salaries rather than through ministry accounts, verified by an independent German-Dutch monitoring company (House of Commons Special Committee on Afghanistan, 2022); as ICRC’s Patrick Hamilton testified, “we are very conscious of the need to avoid trespassing over the various sets of counter-terror legislation that exist…under the present circumstances, we must engage with the de facto authorities to ensure access to the people the ICRC is seeking to assist and protect” (House of Commons Special Committee on Afghanistan, 2022). The December 2024 ARTF financial status report recorded $144.28 million in donor contributions for that calendar year and a cash balance of $445.48 million, confirming that the architecture remains operational despite sustained shortfalls (ARTF Financial Status Report, 2025). This bypass architecture is not costless: the Afghanistan Analysts Network and the Danish government both found that operating entirely outside Taliban administrative systems raises costs and questions the sustainability of results, and the World Bank’s CASA-1000 regional electricity project resumed only in a “ring-fenced manner,” with all payments managed outside Afghanistan, illustrating how far the bypass architecture must extend even for infrastructure work (Afghanistan Analysts Network, 2022; Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023; World Bank, 2024).


The financial bypass does not resolve the political problem of programming in territory where explicit gender-equality commitments trigger obstruction. That problem is managed through systematic reframing: vocational literacy becomes household livelihood resilience, midwifery training becomes safe maternal healthcare, protection from gender-based violence becomes family safety (KPSRL, 2025; Crisis Group, 2025; UNAMA, 2025). This reframing responds to a concrete enforcement apparatus: the Ministry for the Propagation of Virtue and Prevention of Vice (MPVPV) fields approximately 3,300 male inspectors across 28 of 34 provinces, and its July 2024 governing law codifies 35 articles of restriction (UNAMA, 2025; 8am Media, 2024). Applying Layer Two, principled pragmatism here intersects directly with Layer One’s depoliticization critique: services continue, but the feminist political content is stripped to sustain them.

Local flexibility exists but is fragile. In certain provinces, local officials have permitted temporary exceptions to male-guardian requirements for female health workers and allowed women to continue in agricultural and healthcare roles where their labor is practically necessary; UNESCO-supported community classrooms reached more than 361,000 children, over 200,000 of them girls, by 2023, and trained more than 1,000 women facilitators who reached 55,000 Afghans in rural areas by 2024 (All Multidisciplinary Journal, 2025; Crisis Group, 2025). Women-only markets have been established in major cities, and women’s shops have gradually re-emerged in Kabul bazaars despite initial displacement orders, while informal community Shura councils continue to function as dispute resolution mechanisms where formal judicial access has been closed to women (Crisis Group, 2025; Danish Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2023). But UNAMA’s survey data show these gains reversing in real time: between September and December 2024 alone, the share of organizations reporting women unable to reach their offices rose from 21 to 46 percent, those reporting women unable to travel to field locations rose from 20 to 43 percent, MPVPV enforcement visits reached 46 percent of surveyed organizations, and staff anxiety about movement and dress-code enforcement rose from 36 to 54 percent (UNAMA, 2025), evidence of a system tightening incrementally rather than stabilizing. This capacity is further eroded by brain drain: more than 1.6 million Afghans fled between 2021 and 2023, including hundreds of lecturers, doctors, and civil society professionals, and UNESCO found 31 percent of Afghan private universities at risk of closure and a 28 percent income loss for private higher education institutions immediately following the ban on women in higher education (UNESCO, 2024). Crisis Group found that the departure of educated families compounds this collapse, since households with the resources to migrate are precisely those most likely to have educated daughters whose futures have been foreclosed (Crisis Group, 2025). A parallel global shift toward gender mainstreaming has coincided with declining targeted, high-density funding for the women’s rights organizations best positioned to deliver rights-based services locally, even as their institutional survival depends on exactly that kind of direct financing (Lowy Institute, 2024). The subnational compromise is therefore not a temporary tactic; it is a structural feature of humanitarian diplomacy under non-recognized repressive regimes in which survival-oriented aid substitutes for rights-based empowerment as the operational price of continued access.

The Multilateral Legal Turn as Alternative Diplomacy

When direct political engagement with a governing authority is structurally foreclosed, states retaining normative human rights commitments face a choice: disengage entirely, or find alternative modalities of action that preserve accountability without conferring legitimacy. Canada chose the second path. As of mid-2025, only Russia had extended formal diplomatic recognition to the Taliban, while eleven countries, including China, Iran, Qatar, and the UAE, had posted ambassadors in Kabul (IISS, 2024). Canada occupies a more restrictive position than most: it is one of only two UN member states, alongside Tajikistan, that formally classify the Taliban as a terrorist organization (Times of Central Asia, 2025). Prime Minister Trudeau stated in August 2021 that Canada “will not recognize the Islamic Emirate as the legitimate government of Afghanistan” (Reuters, 2021), a position that has not shifted even as the International Institute for Strategic Studies documents “creeping normalization” elsewhere in the international system (IISS, 2024).


On September 25, 2024, Canada joined Australia, Germany, and the Netherlands in initiating formal proceedings against Afghanistan under CEDAW Article 29, described by the Harvard Human Rights Journal as “a monumental statement” and the treaty’s first invocation of that clause in forty-five years (Harvard Human Rights Journal, 2025). Afghanistan ratified CEDAW in 2003 without reservation to Article 29, and under the International Law Commission’s Draft Articles on State Responsibility a de facto government’s conduct is imputable to the state (Open Society Justice Initiative, 2024). The initiative rests on erga omnes partes standing, which allows any state party to invoke state responsibility before the ICJ on the basis of a collective treaty interest regardless of individual injury, a doctrine anchored by The Gambia v. Myanmar (2019) (Harvard Human Rights Journal, 2025; Donoho, 2025). Twenty-six states formally supported the joint statement, which declared the action “without prejudice to our firm position that we do not politically recognize the Taliban de facto authorities as the legitimate representation of the Afghan population” (Global Affairs Canada, 2024). Scholars dispute the caveat’s coherence: the NYU Journal of International Law and Politics reads it as withholding only political recognition (NYU JILP, 2025), while Opinio Juris argues the case implies legal recognition by necessity (Opinio Juris, 2025); the Open Society Justice Initiative rebuts this by citing United States v. Iran (1980) and The Gambia v. Myanmar as precedent for litigating against unrecognized governments (Open Society Justice Initiative, 2024). Functionally, the caveat performs boundary-maintenance, signaling that legal accountability does not constitute normalization.


Three parallel developments reinforce this architecture. In October 2024, the Court of Justice of the European Union ruled that Taliban measures against Afghan women constitute persecution under EU asylum law, such that “the mere fact of being a woman of Afghan nationality under the Taliban regime is sufficient grounds for considering her eligible for refugee status” (ASIL, 2024). In June 2025, the UN CEDAW Committee’s first comprehensive review of Afghanistan since 2021 heard Committee Expert Bandana Rana state that Afghan women and girls had suffered “an unprecedented and systematic obliteration of their rights,” while former Afghan parliamentarian Shukria Barakzai urged the Committee to “recognise gender apartheid as a grave violation of the Convention; hold the de facto authorities accountable for systematic discrimination; and to support Afghan women inside and outside of the country” (OHCHR, 2025). On July 8, 2025, ICC Pre-Trial Chamber II issued arrest warrants for Taliban Supreme Leader Haibatullah Akhundzada and Chief Justice Abdul Hakim Haqqani for the crime against humanity of gender persecution under Rome Statute Article 7(1)(h), finding reasonable grounds that the two leaders ordered, induced, or solicited persecution on gender grounds covering the period from August 15, 2021 onward (ICC, 2025). ICC Prosecutor Karim Khan stated that “these applications recognise that Afghan women and girls as well as the LGBTQI+ community are facing an unprecedented, unconscionable and ongoing persecution by the Taliban” (UN News, 2025). Canada’s commitment extends beyond rhetoric: a $1 million contribution to the ICC Office of the Prosecutor’s Advanced Technology and Specialized Capacity Trust Fund and an increase in seconded police investigators from 3 to 10 directly supported the investigation producing these warrants, with the ICC’s 2025 Annual Report confirming the fund “allowed the Office to recruit specialised expertise, develop policies at the macro and operational levels and conduct substantive training” for the Afghanistan investigation (ReliefWeb, 2022; ICC, 2025).


This accountability-without-recognition model rests on four elements: erga omnes partes standing, the without-prejudice caveat, simultaneous deployment across the ICJ, ICC, and treaty-body venues, and operational investment in investigative capacity. What it cannot yet demonstrate is impact on the lives of women inside Afghanistan: ICJ proceedings face multi-year timelines and produce no enforcement mechanism, and ICC warrants apply to individuals who show no indication of traveling to jurisdictions where arrest is possible. The architecture is real; its distance from the women who need it most is also real.
The Gender Apartheid Conceptual Contestation

The word apartheid carries historical weight most political terms do not, entering international legal consciousness through South African racial segregation and codified as a crime against humanity tied to racial domination. Afghan and Iranian women’s rights activists launched the End Gender Apartheid Campaign in March 2023, arguing that Taliban governance is not merely discriminatory in the familiar sense but institutionalized, state-designed, and aimed at total erasure, and therefore requires legal recognition beyond existing categories (End Gender Apartheid, 2025; PGA, 2024). As campaign lawyer Gissou Nia explained, “gender apartheid currently only has power as a descriptive term. Under international law, the crime of apartheid only applies to racial hierarchies, not hierarchies based on gender” (Global Citizen, 2023). Campaign leader Metra Mehran stated that “women in Afghanistan are basically dehumanized, which means they don’t have access to education, they are not allowed to work, they don’t have freedom of movement, they don’t have access to services” (Vital Voices, 2023). The campaign observes that gender persecution, while legally established and applied in the ICC’s July 2025 arrest warrants, has produced only two attempted ICC prosecutions in nearly twenty-one years, with only one proceeding to trial (Global Citizen, 2023). Its proposed definition covers “inhumane acts committed in the context of an institutionalized regime of systematic oppression and domination by one gender group over any other” (End Gender Apartheid, 2025); the critical difference from persecution is the phrase “institutionalized regime,” since persecution addresses what is done to individuals while apartheid addresses the system designed to produce and sustain that domination. As South African jurist Bonita Meyersfeld, who has built alliances with Afghan activists through her expertise in dismantling racial apartheid, put it: “gender apartheid is a governing system. Afghan women are not just facing discrimination; they are being legally and politically erased…it’s a systemic and codified strategy of control” (Malala Fund, 2025).


The primary vehicle for codification is the UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Crimes Against Humanity. On November 22, 2024, the General Assembly’s Sixth Committee adopted Resolution 79/122 by consensus, establishing a negotiation pathway with preparatory sessions in 2026 and a diplomatic conference across 2028 and 2029, co-sponsored by ninety-nine states spanning all regional groups (Forbes, 2024; Just Security, 2024). Several delegations have proposed expanding the draft treaty’s definition of crimes against humanity to include gender apartheid, alongside proposed additions such as ecocide, while a countervailing bloc urges caution and adherence to the Rome Statute as the appropriate reference point (UN Sixth Committee, 2026). Russia has obstructed the process procedurally, with the Czech Republic stating the Sixth Committee had been “held hostage” by Russia’s “bad faith” consensus tactics before Russia dissociated from the resolution without breaking it, and China’s sovereignty-first posture, resisting human rights conditionality that could apply to its own domestic practices, compounds this resistance (Just Security, 2024). Applying Layer Three, this geopolitical dynamic defines the ceiling of what treaty-based normative entrepreneurship can achieve: a convention opening for signature in 2029 requires broad ratification to be operationally meaningful, and a definition that major powers refuse to ratify becomes a symbolic instrument rather than an enforceable legal standard.


Within Canada, the Senate adopted a motion recognizing gender apartheid on June 11, 2024, with Senator Salma Ataullahjan arguing that “by its silence, this government is complicit in the erasure of Afghan women and girls” (National Magazine, 2025; Senate of Canada, 2023). The House of Commons did not follow; Parliamentary Secretary Rob Oliphant maintained that gender apartheid lacks definition in international law, directing resources instead toward the Rome Statute framework (Government of Canada, 2024). This divergence reflects genuine strategic disagreement rather than a lack of will: the Senate prioritizes the normative, agenda-setting function of naming the phenomenon precisely, while the executive prioritizes existing enforcement machinery, operationalized through the same ICC funding and investigator deployment that produced the July 2025 arrest warrants (ReliefWeb, 2022; ICC, 2025). The evidence does not resolve in favor of one strategy; the strongest position sustains both simultaneously, building long-term normative architecture through treaty negotiation while pursuing near-term accountability through existing mechanisms.
Transit Vulnerabilities and Refugee Resettlement Backlogs

Between August 2021 and October 2024, Canada welcomed over 54,700 Afghan nationals through special immigration programs, committing $2.37 billion over eleven years, placing it second only to the United States in absolute resettlement numbers and meeting its formal commitment of 40,000 arrivals by October 2023, ahead of schedule (IRCC, 2023; Public Safety Canada, 2025). The three program streams, 18,000 spaces for former government partners, 5,000 for family reunification, and a humanitarian stream prioritizing women leaders, LGBTQI+ individuals, human rights defenders, journalists, and persecuted minorities including Hazaras, were designed around the populations most at risk from Taliban governance (Public Safety Canada, 2025). Yet the aggregate conceals design failures. Every stream required applications to route through organizations with pre-existing government agreements, excluding vulnerable individuals without such access, and none targeted individuals still inside Afghanistan who lacked resources to reach a third country first. Neela Hassan documented applications disappearing into what one Canadian lawyer called “a black hole,” and a private sponsorship pilot for 3,000 individuals reached capacity within its first hour, leaving thousands of eligible applicants without options (Hassan, 2024). Hassan concluded that Canada’s policies are “ambiguous and disconnected from reality on the ground, which not only makes the migration process irregular and unpredictable for Afghan refugees but also leaves them in a liminal legal limbo, making them vulnerable to violence, exploitation, and abuse” (Hassan, 2024).


The UAE transit partnership, announced May 2023, shows what functioning transit-state cooperation looks like: Canada resettled up to 1,000 Afghans evacuated to the UAE, with roughly 1,500 total arrivals by mid-2023 (Canada.ca, 2023). Tajikistan presents the structural inverse. Approximately 3,000 sponsored Afghan refugees remain stranded there as of mid-2025, delayed by six-to-twelve-month CSIS screening timelines and the December 2023 closure of special measures programs (Go Canada Services, 2025; CBC News, 2025). Tajikistan’s posture has hardened due to alignment with Russia, which has recognized the Taliban as Afghanistan’s legitimate government; resource strain from hosting over 10,000 refugees concentrated in its poorer, rural southern region bordering Afghanistan; and a permissive international environment modeled on U.S. deportation practices (CBC News, 2025), producing sweeping immigration raids, formal deportation orders, and documented physical abuse of Afghan nationals by Tajik security forces. The UNHCR found that deportations of male breadwinners triggered family separations, with wives and children following deported husbands back to Afghanistan, and that voluntary repatriation rose to 66 individuals in 2024, more than double the 29 who returned in 2023, with some refugees citing the closure of Canada’s sponsorship program as a direct reason for returning (UNHCR, 2025). IRCC stated it was “deeply concerned about reports” of deportations and was working with IOM and UNHCR to protect Afghans destined for Canada, while Global Affairs Canada confirmed it was monitoring conditions in Tajikistan, Pakistan, and Iran (CBC News, 2025). Monitoring and concern are not the same as protection.


The case of Bibi Khatoon Yaqoubi, fifty-seven, illustrates the human cost. Beaten publicly by Taliban authorities on August 15, 2024, leaving her with two fractured legs and a fractured hand, she recounted: “The Taliban pulled me out of the car and beat me. I was unconscious and ended up in the hospital… When I regained consciousness, I realized my arms and legs were broken” (CBC News, 2025). She fled to Tajikistan in December 2024 with a confirmed Canadian sponsorship arranged by her son, and as of August 2025 remained stranded in the backlog. Her son stated: “Of course I’m afraid, she is not where she is supposed to be… If she goes back to Afghanistan, I don’t know what will happen with the Taliban there” (CBC News, 2025).

This is a coherence deficit: the normative commitment is genuine, but the operational architecture designed to deliver it fails under pressure. Arbitrary program caps reflect sizing for administrative manageability rather than protection need; the absence of any safe passage guarantee for refugees holding confirmed sponsorships in hostile transit states means the commitment is not backed by the diplomatic infrastructure needed to make it meaningful, mirroring at the domestic level the same risk-shifting dynamic documented for Bill C-41 and humanitarian NGOs. Canada’s resettlement of 54,700 Afghans is a genuine humanitarian achievement, but commitment without architecture to sustain it under pressure is not protection when protection is most urgently needed.

Conclusion

This study argues that Canada’s humanitarian diplomacy toward Taliban-controlled Afghanistan is characterized by an accountability-without-recognition model that combines legal innovation with persistent operational constraints. The analysis demonstrates that Canada’s legal and diplomatic initiatives have strengthened international accountability mechanisms while remaining only partially connected to improvements in the everyday conditions of Afghan women and girls. The coexistence of legal progress and declining humanitarian effectiveness reflects not temporary policy shortcomings but a broader structural contradiction embedded within the interaction of feminist foreign policy, humanitarian governance, and counter-terrorism regulation.

The study further demonstrates that legislative barriers, operational adaptation, multilateral legal engagement, refugee protection challenges, and accountability mechanisms should not be understood as independent policy domains. Rather, they represent interconnected dimensions of a single governance system in which humanitarian access, legal accountability, and feminist objectives are simultaneously pursued yet frequently undermine one another. Addressing any single component in isolation is therefore unlikely to produce durable policy change.

The findings indicate that strengthening Canada’s gender-responsive humanitarian diplomacy requires coordinated reforms across multiple domains. Counter-terrorism authorization procedures should be redesigned to facilitate gender-responsive development programming while maintaining appropriate security safeguards. Refugee protection mechanisms require more effective operational pathways to ensure that resettlement commitments translate into safe and timely protection. Finally, sustained support for Afghan women’s organizations should be prioritized to preserve locally led gender-responsive programming alongside broader humanitarian assistance.


In the last words, this analysis contributes to the literature by conceptualizing accountability-without-recognition as an emerging model of feminist humanitarian diplomacy while demonstrating its inherent structural limitations. The Afghan case illustrates that legal accountability, humanitarian effectiveness, and feminist transformation cannot be treated as separate policy objectives. Instead, they must be understood as mutually dependent components of humanitarian diplomacy operating within conditions of contested sovereignty and protracted conflict.

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About Abdul Wasi Popalzay

Abdul Wasi Popalzay is a doctoral researcher in Political Science and International Relations at the Central University of Punjab, India. His doctoral research examines the changing dynamics of Afghanistan–Pakistan relations in the post-U.S. withdrawal era, with a focus on major power engagement. His research interests include regional security complexes, great power foreign policy behavior, South and Central Asian geopolitics, and post-conflict diplomacy. He previously completed postgraduate research on the Armenia–Azerbaijan conflict from a geopolitical perspective. He was recognized as Best Research Scholar (2025) by the Central University of Punjab.
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