Genomic evolution of major malaria-transmitting mosquito species uncovered

Sequencing hundreds of Anopheles funestus mosquitoes provides new insights into the evolutionary patterns of this important human malaria-transmitting species

Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute

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New research into the genetics of Anopheles funestus (An. funestus), one of the most neglected but prolific malaria-transmitting mosquitoes in Africa, has revealed how this species is evolving in response to malaria control efforts. Reported today (18 September) in Science, researchers from the Wellcome Sanger Institute together with leading scientists across Africa sequenced hundreds of An. funestus mosquitoes collected throughout the continent to explore the genetic variation in the species, including changes driving its adaptation to control methods. The results of the study provide a new understanding of An. funestus that can be used to inform further work towards malaria elimination in sub-Saharan Africa. The mosquito species An. funestus is one of the most widespread in Africa. Females of the species are highly anthropophilic, meaning they are attracted to humans as a source of blood, which they need to develop their eggs. They also have a significantly longer lifespan than other malaria-transmitting mosquito species.1 An. funestus is also extraordinarily adaptive. For example, in some areas, it has evolved from biting indoors in the evening to biting outdoors during the day, likely in response to the use of mosquito nets. Together, these characteristics make them formidable malaria transmitters in the part of the world where malaria remains most devastating. In 2023 the World Health Organisation African Region reported 569,000 malaria-related deaths.2 Having a comprehensive understanding of the genetics of each major malaria-transmitting mosquito species is essential for implementing effective malaria control and preventing deaths. To support this, mosquito biologists across Africa together with the team at the Sanger Institute collected and sequenced the whole genomes of 656 modern An. funestus mosquito specimens that were collected from 2014 to 2018. They also sequenced 45 historic specimens from the Natural History Museum in London and the French National Research Institute for Sustainable Development (IRD) that were collected between 1927 and 1967 to understand the evolutionary patterns and changes in the species across 16 African countries during the last century.3  The team found high levels of genetic variation in An. funestus across Africa and discovered that samples originating from equatorial countries shared many genetic similarities despite covering a 4,000-kilometre range. This suggests that they likely belong to one large, interconnected population. However, some samples from this region, such as those from North Ghana and South Benin, were isolated and genetically distinct from the interconnected population. This shows some populations mix widely, while others remain separate. Such population structure has important implications for mosquito control. By looking at the DNA of the historic samples, the team was able to highlight the fast-evolving nature of An. funestus. One key mutation linked to insecticide resistance, which is widespread among the modern populations, was already present in the mosquitoes from the 1960s. However, other mutations that make mosquitoes resistant to insecticides were absent from the historic mosquitoes, suggesting that these became beneficial for the mosquitoes only later, as different insecticides were used in subsequent decades. New biological tools are being used to combat malaria, such as the use of gene drives.4 The team discovered that a key target for a gene drive in An. gambiae – another major malaria-transmitting mosquito species – is very similar in An. funestus. This is encouraging as it suggests that the doublesex gene drive system developed for An. gambiae can be adapted to work in An. funestus as well. This new study describes how the genetics of An. funestus should inform future research and surveillance strategies that aim to reduce the spread of malaria. The data from this study have also been incorporated into the MalariaGEN Vector Observatory that hosts DNA data from multiple Anopheles species alongside tools for researchers to use in order to analyse data.5 Dr Marilou Boddé, first author and Postdoctoral Fellow formerly at the Wellcome Sanger Institute and now at Institut Pasteur de Madagascar and LIB Bonn, Germany, said: “An. funestus is genetically complex and evolving fast under pressure from insecticide use. This work is progress in generating a foundational genomic understanding of An. funestus. The insights from this study are crucial for designing future tools that need to work across entire continents for the benefit of those living in countries affected by malaria." Professor Charles Wondji, author on the paper from the Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine and based at the Centre for Research in Infectious Diseases in Cameroon, said: “For too long An. funestus has been neglected despite its key role in malaria transmission across Africa. I am thus delighted that this continent-wide whole genome study of the genetic structure of An. funestus is now published. My team is proud to have contributed to this major milestone that will facilitate the implementation of future control interventions against this major vector." Dr Mara Lawniczak, senior author and Senior Group Leader at the Wellcome Sanger Institute, said: “We find some mosquito populations readily sharing variation across the African continent, while others are close neighbours but genetically distinct. This is a challenge for vector control. Even if the Gambiae Complex disappeared today, malaria would still rage through Africa until An. funestus is also effectively targeted. We hope the greater understanding of the high levels of genetic diversity and the complex population structure we uncover here will underpin smarter surveillance and targeted vector control.” ENDS

Notes to Editors: From a 2023 publication in Nature, An. funestus was noted to have an expected average life span of 6.5 days in the wild in Tanzania, while for An. arabiensis, a major malaria vector in the Gambiae complex, the average expected life span is only 3.6 days. In laboratory conditions, An. funestus has median life expectancy of 28 days, while this is 20 days for An. arabiensis. World Health Organization. (2024, December 11). Malaria. Available at: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/malaria [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me] (Accessed: June 2025) The DNA data were compared to a reference genome created from a mosquito caught in Gabon. Gene drive is a method for genetically modifying malaria-transmitting mosquitoes, spreading the modification through wild populations and ultimately, reducing their ability to transmit malaria The Malaria Vector Genome Observatory is a collaborative project that has sequenced the genomes of thousands of Anopheles mosquitoes. The data are available to enhance the monitoring and surveillance of natural populations of An. Funestus mosquitoes. There is a suite of tools available alongside the data that researchers can use for their data analysis. For more information, please visit: Malaria Vector Genome Observatory [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me].   Publication: Boddé, M. et al. (2025) ‘Genomic diversity of the African malaria vector Anopheles funestus’. Science. DOI: 10.1126/science.adu3596 Funding: This research was partly funded by Wellcome. The full list of funders can be found in the publication. Selected websites: The Wellcome Sanger Institute The Wellcome Sanger Institute is a world leading genomics research centre. We undertake large-scale research that forms the foundations of knowledge in biology and medicine. We are open and collaborative; our data, results, tools and technologies are shared across the globe to advance science. Our ambition is vast – we take on projects that are not possible anywhere else. We use the power of genome sequencing to understand and harness the information in DNA. Funded by Wellcome, we have the freedom and support to push the boundaries of genomics. Our findings are used to improve health and to understand life on Earth. Find out more at www.sanger.ac.uk [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me] or follow us on Twitter [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me], Facebook [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me], LinkedIn [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me] and on our Blog [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me]. About Wellcome Wellcome supports science to solve the urgent health challenges facing everyone. We support discovery research into life, health and wellbeing, and we’re taking on three worldwide health challenges: mental health, infectious disease and climate and health. https://wellcome.org/ [74n5c4m7.r.eu-west-1.awstrack.me]

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Journal

Science

DOI

10.1126/science.adu3596 

Article Title

Genomic diversity of the African malaria vector Anopheles funestus

Article Publication Date

18-Sep-2025

Two studies explore the genomic diversity of deadly mosquito vectors

Summary author: Walter Beckwith

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

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Two of the world’s deadliest mosquito vectors – Aedes aegypti and Anopheles funestus – have evolved, spread, and adapted in ways that complicate global disease control, two studies show. The findings trace the human-linked origins of Ae. aegypti’s invasive lineage. They also reveal the rapid emergence of insecticide resistance in An. funestus. Collectively, they reveal the urgent need for more tailored and innovative interventions against malaria and dengue. Top of Form“Both [studies] provide important insights into the … the complex role that human activity, both passive and intentional, plays in their movement and adaptations,” writes Tamar Carter in a related Perspective. “These processes have led to complex subspecies genomic diversity that likely translates to functional diversity that is yet to be fully elucidated.” Bottom of Form Mosquito vector-borne diseases represent a major global health challenge, with malaria and dengue each causing hundreds of millions of infections annually, worldwide. The increasing mobility of people and goods has enabled mosquitoes, once confined to relatively narrow regions, to spread widely and adapt to new environments. Although modern genomic analyses could provide insight into the origin, evolution, spread, and control of these vectors, individual mosquito species are unequally represented in studies. Here, in a pair of studies, researchers analyze genomic data from Ae. aegypti and An. funestus mosquitoes to reconstruct their evolutionary and demographic histories.

 

In one study, Jacob Crawford and colleagues investigated Ae. aegypti – the primary vector of dengue, chikungunya, and Zika. The precise origin of the globally invasive Ae. aegypti has long been debated. Crawford et al. sequenced 1206 genomes from 73 globally distributed populations, using coalescent and phylogenetic analyses to disentangle ancient from recent migration events. According to the findings, after evolving a preference for humans in West Africa, Ae. Aegypti made its way to the Americas during the Atlantic slave trade, with the globally invasive lineage ultimately arising in the Americas. More recently, this invasive lineage has re-entered Africa and interbred with native populations, coinciding with increased dengue outbreaks and the spread of insecticide-resistance mutations.

 

In another study, Marilou Boddé and colleagues performed a sweeping genomic analysis of An. funestus to investigate how this major malaria vector has adapted, particularly under vector control pressure. Boddé et al. sequenced 701 modern and historic An. Funestus mosquitoes from 16 African countries. The findings revealed a complex population structure – while some populations showed strong geographic structuring, others were genetically connected across wide distances, with distinct lineages emerging in places like North Ghana and South Benin. According to the authors, this diversity suggests that uniform control strategies are unlikely to succeed, emphasizing the need for locally tailored interventions. Moreover, by comparing modern samples with century-old museum specimens, the team showed that insecticide resistance arose both through independent mutations and the spread of resistant lineages. Most insecticide resistant variants found in modern An. Funestus were not found in historical species from as recent as 1967, suggesting rapid emergence. Boddé et al. also discovered promising gene drive targets within An. Funestus, which could enable more effective and strategic vector control efforts.

 

For reporters interested in trends, an August 2025 Science Translational Medicine study by Quandelacy et al. provided an in-depth analysis of dengue transmission in the Americas, revealing regional outbreak patterns and how they are shaped by climatic factors.

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Journal

Science

DOI

10.1126/science.ads3732 

Article Title

1206 genomes reveal origin and movement of Aedes aegypti driving increased dengue risk

Article Publication Date

18-Sep-2025

Hotspots of mosquito-borne disease risk predicted in Brazil in coming decades

Mitigating climate change could slow mosquito population growth, lowering disease risk

PLOS

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Rio de Janeiro.

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Credit: Raúl Escobar, Unsplash (CC0, https://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/)

A new study suggests that the risk of mosquito-borne illness in Brazil will rise significantly by the year 2080, but that climate action could help. Katherine Heath of the Burnet Institute, Melbourne, Australia, and colleagues present these findings September 18th in the open-access journal PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases.

In many parts of the world, mosquitos of the species Aedes aegypti transmit disease-causing viruses—such as dengue, Zika, and chikungunya—when they bite people to feed on blood. Prior research has linked climate change and urban growth to higher future risk of mosquito-borne disease. In Brazil, warmer temperatures and changing rainfall patterns already appear to be contributing to higher dengue rates.

However, predictions of future mosquito-borne disease risk are hampered by the difficulty of mathematically capturing the interplay between climate change, urbanization, and mosquito biology. To address that challenge, Heath and colleagues developed a new mathematical model that combines climate and anthropogenic factors with delay-differential equations describing Ae. Aegypti survival and reproduction. The model accounts for the impacts of temperature and rainfall on mosquito biology at different life-cycle stages, as well as the impacts of urban expansion and human-mosquito interaction on disease transmission and mosquito population growth.

The researchers used the model to predict future mosquito population density across Brazil from 2024 through 2080 under different Shared Socioeconomic Pathways, a set of plausible future climate and societal scenarios that include different levels of climate change mitigation, urban growth and greenhouse gas emissions.

The model predicts that, under the lowest emissions scenario, Brazil’s overall Ae. Aegypti density will be 11 percent higher by 2080 than in 2024. In the highest emissions scenario, density is predicted to increase 30 percent nationwide by 2080, but with hotspots in the South and Southeast where density will nearly double.

With rising Ae. Aegypti density, dengue transmission is predicted to increase nationally—with the biggest increases in Southeast Brazil, where mosquito population growth is predicted to outpace human population growth.

These findings suggest that reducing emissions could reduce future disease risk. This study could also help inform national policies and local public health planning efforts.

The authors add, “Brazil already carries one of the world’s highest burdens of mosquito-borne disease, and our results show these pressures could grow in the coming decades.” 

“Our model went beyond asking where mosquitoes might survive: it estimated how many there will be and what that means for future disease outbreaks.”

“The difference between a high- and low-emissions future is stark: strong climate action could cut Brazil’s projected mosquito density increases by two-thirds.”

In your coverage, please use this URL to provide access to the freely available paper in PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases: https://plos.io/47AXJ7Q

Citation: Heath K, Muniz Alves L, Bonsall MB (2025) Climate change, urbanisation and transmission potential: Aedes aegypti mosquito projections forecast future arboviral disease hotspots in Brazil. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 19(9): e0013415. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pntd.0013415

Author countries: Australia, United Kingdom, Brazil

Funding: This work was supported by a PhD studentship [BB/M011224/1] from the Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Research Council (BBSRC) to KH. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript.

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Journal

PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases

DOI

10.1371/journal.pntd.0013415 

Method of Research

Computational simulation/modeling

 

Zebra finches categorize their vocal calls by meaning

Summary author: Walter Beckwith

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)

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Zebra finches can not only distinguish the full range of their species’ vocalizations but also organize them by meaning, according to a new study. The results suggest a surprising level of semantic understanding in the birds. Many social animals use a rich repertoire of vocalizations to communicate their needs, emotions, and awareness of the environment. Researchers have long tried to decode these sounds – essentially the species’ “language” – by grouping them into call types based on how they sound, the situations in which they are used, and how other animals respond. However, it is unclear whether these categories reflect the animals’ own perception or understanding of meaning. Zebra finches, highly social songbirds that use around 11 distinct call types for diverse social behaviors, offer a useful model to evaluate these questions. To test how adult zebra finches classify their species’ vocalizations, Julie Elie and colleagues performed an experiment involving 12 finches, in which the birds had to distinguish one rewarded call type from the other ten nonrewarded call types, including those from other, unfamiliar species. Elie et al. found that these birds have a remarkable ability to distinguish all call types in their vocal repertoire, demonstrating that they can accurately perceive and categorize their species’ vocal signals. Importantly, the authors found that call “misclassifications” were more common between call-types used in similar behavioral or social contexts, suggesting that zebra finches organize calls semantically and form mental representations of their underlying meanings.

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Journal

Science

DOI

10.1126/science.ads8482 

Article Title

Categorical and semantic perception of the meaning of call types in zebra finches

Article Publication Date

18-Sep-2025

 

Better messaging can fight cancer, save lives

Peer-driven messages boost cervical cancer screening for at-risk women

University of Texas at Austin

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Cervical cancer is the fourth most common cancer among women globally, according to the World Health Organization. It accounted for 660,000 new cases and 350,000 deaths in 2022.

Screening, along with early detection and treatment, can greatly improve a patient’s chances of survival. But in low- to middle-income countries, many women are not being screened, and they’re disproportionately dying from the disease.

In new research from Texas McCombs, Anima Nivsarkar, a doctoral student in marketing, uncovers a powerful tool to boost screening: trust. When messages are delivered by trusted and credible sources such as doctors and peers, they increase the likelihood that women will seek potentially life-saving exams.

The study began when a primary health care provider in India asked Nivsarkar — with Vedha Ponnappan and Prakash Satyavageeswaran from the Indian Institute of Management Udaipur and Sundar Bharadwaj from the University of Georgia — for help encouraging women to get cervical cancer screenings.

In discussions with local nonprofits, they found powerful social barriers — taboos and misconceptions around reproductive health — even when women knew that screening was available.

“It’s one of the cancers that is preventable, so then, what is it that is holding back women from actually getting the screening?” says Nivsarkar.

“These interviews helped us uncover that it was primarily the social stigma, the sociocultural norms that existed in these areas, that were holding back women from getting screened and taking charge of their health.”

Doctors and hospitals typically rely on print materials, such as infographics, to educate the public. Nivsarkar’s team explored a more personalized form of messaging: videos recorded by physicians and peers. They found that both types of message carriers helped raise screenings more than printed information alone.

Effects were strongest, the researchers found, when a communicator’s message matched their role.

• Using peers to deliver messages of empowerment and taking ownership over one’s health could increase screenings 36.5%, suggesting the potential to reach an additional 21 million women in India.
• When authority figures such as doctors or relatable sources such as peers explained the risks of not getting screened, women were willing to pay more for screening: enough that clinics could afford to screen 21% more women.

Although the research focused on a specific audience and issue, it may have applications in other health care contexts involving cultural barriers, Nivsarkar says. Similar approaches might work for other kinds of stigmatized reproductive health services or in communities where mental health screening encounters taboos.

The results challenge the strategy of depending on infographics or the mere provision of factual information, Nivsarkar says. “Given that peer-empowering messages led to the largest increase in adoption, we recommend public health campaigns shift toward leveraging peer influence with culturally attuned appeals.”

“Fit to Persuade: The Role of Source-Appeal Congruence in Cancer Screening Decisions” is published in the Journal of Marketing.

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Journal

Journal of Marketing

DOI

10.1177/002224292513552 

Article Title

EXPRESS: Fit to Persuade: The Role of Source–Appeal Congruence in Cancer Screening Decisions

Personal storytelling during medical training improves learning and the way doctors connect with their patients

“By making space for personal stories in medical school, we aim to build a more human, compassionate healthcare system for everyone.”

Boston University School of Medicine

 

 

(Boston)—Most medical schools teach students about illness through lectures or clinical vignettes as taught by doctors, but Boston University Chobanian & Avedisian School of Medicine offers a novel teaching experience whereby medical students share their own personal experiences with illness. 

 

Recently, the school created the Student Perspectives Initiative (SPI), a student-led program where medical students share their own personal stories with illness that match topics being taught in class. For example, a lecture on inflammatory bowel diseases in the gastroenterology module would include a presentation by a student speaking about their own experience with Crohn’s disease.

 

In a new study, students who participated in the SPI program said that it helped them learn, understand the emotions connected to the disease, and feel more connected to each other. This is the first study demonstrating that storytelling by students themselves can be a lasting and meaningful way to improve medical education.

 

From 2020 to 2022, BU medical students learned basic science in their first year and clinical science in their second year. During the second year, students were introduced to SPI, where they shared personal stories matched to what they were learning in class. In 2023, BU changed the curriculum to combine basic and clinical science into one -and-a half years. Because of this, the SPI program was offered in both the first and second years.

 

Each year, approximately eight students gave voluntary presentations that lasted 30 to 60 minutes. Peer attendance was between 25 and 160 students. A faculty member also was present during the sessions to provide support and answer more technical questions related to anatomy and physiology. To measure the program’s impact, the researchers created a survey that asked about learning, empathy and community. They also asked for feedback to improve the program. Students could fill out the survey anonymously after the end of the SPI program, regardless of whether they had presented, attended or simply heard about the program.

 

According to the researcher, these findings show that a program like the SPI can help shape how future doctors learn to care for patients—not only by memorizing facts but by truly understanding what it feels like to be sick. “When medical students hear real stories from their peers about living with illness, they become more empathetic, emotionally aware and better prepared to support their patients. These kinds of experiences can lead to more compassionate, human-centered care in the long run,” explained senior author Ariel Hirsch, MD, professor of radiation oncology and director of radiation oncology education at the school.

 

The researchers believe this study highlights the powerful idea that storytelling—especially personal storytelling—can be a tool for education, healing and connection. “It shows that when students share their own experiences with illness, it not only teaches important lessons but also helps build empathy and community. It also suggests that storytelling could be used more widely—not just in medicine, but in schools, workplaces, and communities—to help people better understand each other and grow together,” adds corresponding author Elyse Olesinski, MD, who graduated from the medical school in May and now is an internal medicine resident at Massachusetts General Hospital.

 

BU medical school graduate and founder of the program Seth Bergenholtz, MD, and current BU medical student Sarah Horn, also contributed to this study.

 

These findings appear online in the journal Medical Science Educator.

 

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Journal

Medical Science Educator

DOI

10.1007/s40670-025-02450-4 

Method of Research

Survey

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

The Student Perspectives Initiative: A Novel Program Integrating Medical Students’ Own Personal Stories of Illness into the Pre-clinical Medical Curriculum

 

Texas A&M researchers pioneer cryopreservation method to prevent organ cracking

The breakthrough approach may pave the way for successful, long-term organ transplants — bringing science fiction closer to medical reality.

Texas A&M University

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Researchers at Texas A&M University are developing advanced cryopreservation techniques, aiming to preserve organs at subzero temperatures without cracking — a key step toward extending viability of biological samples.

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Credit: Texas A&M University College of Engineering

Cryopreservation, or preserving biological tissue by cooling it to subzero temperatures, may bring to mind works of science fiction. Yet, researchers have been working on this technology for nearly 100 years. For most of the field’s history, minimal progress was made — until 2023, when researchers from the University of Minnesota successfully transplanted a cryopreserved kidney to another rat, showing the potential for cryopreserved organ transplants in humans.

However, cryopreserving larger organs presents a major challenge: the organs are more likely to crack due to the rapid cooling process. Preventing cracks is essential for human organ preservation and transplantation. Researchers from the J. Mike Walker ’66 Department of Mechanical Engineering at Texas A&M University, led by Dr. Matthew Powell-Palm, have published a paper outlining their discovery — a cryopreservation approach that may prevent cracking in organs.

To preserve organs outside the body for an extended period, researchers use vitrification, which involves freezing tissue in a solution and preserving it in a glassy state, allowing cells to be “frozen in time” without the risk of damage from ice crystals. By adjusting the makeup of a vitrification solution, researchers can study properties of the solution that affect an organ’s risk of cracking. 

“In this study, we investigated different glass transition temperatures, which we believe play a dominant role in cracking,” said Powell-Palm, an assistant professor of mechanical engineering. “We learned that higher glass transition temperatures reduce the likelihood of cracking.”

Equipped with the knowledge that higher transition temperatures are less likely to cause cracks than lower temperatures, researchers can focus on creating aqueous vitrification solutions with higher glass transition temperatures to help avoid cracking. 

“Cracking is only one part of the problem,” Powell-Palm said. “The solutions need to be biocompatible with the tissue as well.”

This knowledge is essential to the field of cryopreservation, which has applications beyond organ transplantation, including wildlife and biodiversity conservation, vaccine stabilization and food waste reduction. Cryopreservation can extend the viability of any biological sample, benefiting any life science field.

“This study offers a seminal contribution to our understanding of aqueous solution thermodynamics,” said co-author and Mechanical Engineering Department Head Dr. Guillermo Aguilar, who serves as the James and Ada Forsyth Professor. “I look forward to more encouraging results in this direction, which will ultimately yield an increased viability of biological systems of all scales—from single cells to whole organs.”

Powell-Palm and Aguilar’s co-authors on this paper include Dr. Soheil Kavian, Ph.D. students Crystal Alvarez and Ron Sellers, and undergraduate student Gabriel Arismendi Sanchez, all from the mechanical engineering department. 

“At its core, mechanical engineering requires an understanding of how something — anything —works. This project integrates physical chemistry, glass physics, thermomechanics, and cryobiology,” said Powell-Palm. “These students have done an amazing job applying the holistic thinking that mechanical engineering requires to this work.”

This study was funded by the National Science Foundation’s Engineering Research Center for Advanced Technologies for the Preservation of Biological Systems, which funds the highest levels of cryopreservation research.

By Alyssa Schaechinger, Texas A&M University College of Engineering

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Journal

Nature

DOI

10.1038/s41598-025-13295-7 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Human tissue samples

Article Title

Higher glass transition temperatures reduce thermal stress cracking in aqueous solutions relevant to cryopreservation