BAN DEEP SEA MINING
Proposed Machinery and Technology for Collecting Seabed Minerals. Credit: CRS
April 14, 2026
By Caitlin Keating-Bitonti
The Congressional Research Service (CRS)
In 1980, Congress passed the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (DSHMRA; 30 U.S.C. §§1401 et seq.) as an interim measure to allow the United States to proceed with seabed mining activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) until an international regime was in place (i.e., the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [UNCLOS]). DSHMRA established a framework for authorizing U.S. citizens (e.g., individuals, corporations) to explore for and recover minerals from the seabed in ABNJ. In general, exploration means the at-sea observation, evaluation, and taking of seabed minerals as needed to design and test mining equipment, and commercial recovery means the actual at-sea mining and processing of seabed minerals for the primary purpose of commercial use (30 U.S.C. §1403).
On April 24, 2025, President Trump issued Executive Order (E.O.) 14285, “Unleashing America’s Offshore Critical Minerals and Resources,” which directed certain federal agencies, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), to advance seabed mining activities as part of a broader national effort to secure reliable supplies of critical minerals. This In Focus discusses the actions of NOAA and U.S. companies related to seabed mining in ABNJ as well as congressional interest in the topic. The Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and its regulation of mineral-related activities is beyond the scope of this In Focus.
By Caitlin Keating-Bitonti
The Congressional Research Service (CRS)
In 1980, Congress passed the Deep Seabed Hard Mineral Resources Act (DSHMRA; 30 U.S.C. §§1401 et seq.) as an interim measure to allow the United States to proceed with seabed mining activities in areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ) until an international regime was in place (i.e., the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea [UNCLOS]). DSHMRA established a framework for authorizing U.S. citizens (e.g., individuals, corporations) to explore for and recover minerals from the seabed in ABNJ. In general, exploration means the at-sea observation, evaluation, and taking of seabed minerals as needed to design and test mining equipment, and commercial recovery means the actual at-sea mining and processing of seabed minerals for the primary purpose of commercial use (30 U.S.C. §1403).
On April 24, 2025, President Trump issued Executive Order (E.O.) 14285, “Unleashing America’s Offshore Critical Minerals and Resources,” which directed certain federal agencies, including the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), to advance seabed mining activities as part of a broader national effort to secure reliable supplies of critical minerals. This In Focus discusses the actions of NOAA and U.S. companies related to seabed mining in ABNJ as well as congressional interest in the topic. The Department of the Interior’s Bureau of Ocean Energy Management and its regulation of mineral-related activities is beyond the scope of this In Focus.
UNCLOS and the International Seabed Authority
UNCLOS was adopted in 1982, establishing a comprehensive international legal framework to govern activities related to the global ocean, including seabed mining. In 1994, the Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (commonly known as the 1994 Agreement) substantially modified the seabed mining provisions of UNCLOS to address concerns held by many industrialized nations. After the adoption of the 1994 Agreement, UNCLOS received the necessary number of signatories for UNCLOS to enter into force. The United States is not a party to UNCLOS or the 1994 Agreement.
UNCLOS also established the International Seabed Authority (ISA), an autonomous organization that regulates parties to UNCLOS conducting mineral-related activities in ABNJ. The ISA came into existence with the adoption of the 1994 Agreement and became fully operational in 1996. The United States participates as an observer state in the ISA but, as a nonparty, has no vote in ISA business and cannot apply for or obtain a contract for seabed mining exploration or exploitation through the ISA. To date, the ISA has issued 31 exploration contracts, of which 17 are located in the Clarion-Clipperton Zone (CCZ). The CCZ is a 1.7-million-square-mile area of the seafloor in the Pacific Ocean that is estimated to contain more cobalt, manganese, and nickel—identified by the U.S. Geological Survey as critical minerals—than all known land deposits combined. The ISA is working toward finalizing exploitation regulations and has not issued any exploitation contracts (DSHMRA uses the term commercial recovery permits, which would serve a similar purpose to exploitation contracts issued by ISA).
Exploration Licenses Issued by NOAA
DSHMRA authorized the NOAA administrator to issue exploration licenses and commercial recovery permits to U.S. citizens for seabed mining activities in ABNJ (30 U.S.C. §1412). In 1984, NOAA issued exploration licenses for four sites located in the CCZ. NOAA issued exploration licenses to four U.S. mining consortia, three of which were multinational private sector consortia with participating American companies. NOAA issued the following:USA-1 to Ocean Minerals Company, comprising Cyprus Minerals and Lockheed Martin Corporation (American companies);
USA-2 to Ocean Management Inc., comprising Schlumberger Technology (an American company) and Canadian, German, and Japanese companies;
USA-3 to Ocean Mining Associates, comprising Essex Minerals Co. and Sun Ocean Ventures, Inc. (American companies) and Belgian and Italian companies; and
USA-4 to Kennecott Consortium, comprising Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation (an American company) and British, Canadian, and Japanese companies.
NOAA issued these licenses 10 years before UNCLOS entered into force and 12 years before the ISA became operational. NOAA has not issued exploration licenses since 1984. The agency has approved extension requests following the initial 10-year periods of the licenses. A license can be extended for five-year periods (30 U.S.C. §1417(a)). NOAA has not issued any commercial recovery permits.
Two of the four exploration licenses issued by NOAA (USA-2 and USA-3) were relinquished in the late 1990s (64 Federal Register [FR] 3563). USA-1 and USA-4 remain the only active exploration licenses issued by NOAA pursuant to DSHMRA. Lockheed Martin holds both licenses. It became the sole holder of the licenses by different means. In 1993, Kennecott Consortium relinquished USA-4 to NOAA (58 FR 33933). Ocean Minerals Company, the consortium including Lockheed Martin, applied for USA-4 (58 FR 34782), and NOAA issued the license in 1994 (59 FR 66942). In 1995, Cyprus Minerals withdrew from Ocean Minerals Company, leaving Lockheed Martin as the sole company overseeing USA-1 and USA-4.
USA-1 and USA-4 are expected to remain in effect through June 2, 2027 (87 FR 52743). In 2021, the ISA designated an area of the CCZ that partially overlaps with USA-1 as an Area of Particular Environmental Interest. The designation precludes UNCLOS parties from seabed mining activities in the area. This action appears to question whether NOAA-issued exploration licenses have international recognition. Because the United States is not a party to UNCLOS, any future NOAA-issued licenses and permits that may (or may not) overlap with ISA designations could have similar uncertainty. According to a 2017 NOAA notice, “any rights a U.S. company may have domestically are not secured internationally.”
Lockheed Martin may submit an extension request to NOAA at least six months prior to June 2, 2027, to retain USA-1 and USA-4. If the licenses are not extended, U.S. entities can request NOAA transfer USA-1 and/or USA-4, pursuant to 15 C.F.R. §970.516.
Pending Applications to NOAA
E.O. 14285 directed NOAA, in consultation with the Departments of State and the Interior, to expedite the process for reviewing and issuing licenses and permits under DSHMRA, among other actions. NOAA reportedly has received “over 10 applications” since the E.O. was issued. Once NOAA determines an application to be fully compliant with DSHMRA, the agency will publish a notice in the Federal Register (15 C.F.R. §970.212 and 15 C.F.R. §971.212). As of the date of this publication, NOAA has determined that four applications are fully compliant with DSHMRA (90 FR 60064 and 91 FR 13822):
The Metal Company’s (TMC’s) U.S. subsidiary, TMC USA, submitted two exploration license applications (A and B). TMC, a Canadian company, has two other foreign subsidiaries: Nauru Ocean Resources Inc. (NORI) and Tonga Offshore Mining Limited (TOML). Through sponsorships with Nauru and Tonga (both UNCLOS parties), NORI and TOML each hold one ISA exploration contract in the CCZ. TMC USA’s applications to NOAA overlap with portions of Nauru’s and Tonga’s respective ISA exploration contract areas.
American Metal Resources (AMR) submitted one exploration license application. It overlaps with some ISA-designated reserved areas in the CCZ as well as a portion of another company’s application to NOAA.
SeaX (a subsidiary of AMR) submitted one exploration license application. It overlaps with some ISA-designated reserved areas in the CCZ.
A fully compliant application does not mean an application will be certified and that a license or permit will be issued.
On January 21, 2026, NOAA issued a final rule that revised its seabed mining regulations to include a “consolidated license and permit application process in which applicants could meet both exploration license requirements, to establish priority of right, and permit requirements simultaneously” (91 FR 2642). The final rule is reflected in 15 C.F.R. §971.214. On January 22, 2026, TMC USA submitted a consolidated application, and on March 9, 2026, the company announced that NOAA determined the application to be in substantial compliance.
Some companies also have publicly announced applications that they have submitted to NOAA while awaiting NOAA’s determination, including Deep Sea Rare Mineralsand American Ocean Minerals Corporation.
Recent Congressional Interest
Congress may continue to consider seabed mining issues in the context of E.O. 14285 and U.S. industry interest in acquiring NOAA exploration licenses and commercial recovery permits for seabed mining in ABNJ. Some Members have introduced legislation in the 119th Congress that would codify E.O. 14285 (e.g., H.R. 3803) or mandate that certain federal entities act on aspects of the E.O. (e.g., H.R. 4018, S. 2860). These bills reiterate that “the United States faces unprecedented economic and national security challenges in securing reliable supplies of critical minerals independent of foreign adversary control” as stated in the E.O. Some Members have questioned how seabed mining could address these challenges given no commercial-scale processing facilities for seabed minerals exist. Some experts contend that “much more needs to be done before the seabed can help secure America’s supply chains.”
The three bills also would direct NOAA to expedite the authorization of U.S. seabed mining activities in ABNJ under DSHMRA. According to the ISA, however, authorization of seabed mining activities outside the UNCLOS framework (e.g., via DSHMRA) “may incur legal, diplomatic, economic, security, financial and reputational risks.” Congress may weigh in on the extent to which the issuance of new NOAA licenses and permits might present geopolitical disagreements. Views on the potential for such disagreements vary. While the four fully compliant applications overlap with ISA-designated areas, TMC, AMR, and SeaX each stated in their applications to NOAA that they do not anticipate any conflicts. In contrast, the Secretary-General of the ISA stated that “any unilateral action … sets a dangerous precedent that could destabilize the entire system of global ocean governance.”
U.S. accession to UNCLOS may reduce the potential for geopolitical disagreements, at the cost of replacing U.S. government decisionmaking with that of an international body. Weighing the advantages and disadvantages of giving U.S. entities access to ISA contracts through U.S. accession to UNCLOS is an ongoing issue for Congress. S.Res. 331 calls for the Senate to take up UNCLOS. Some experts argue the United States has the authority to mine ABNJ.
Other Members have introduced legislation (H.R. 664) to prohibit NOAA from authorizing seabed mining activities in ABNJ until more is known about its environmental impacts. Separately, H.R. 663 would instruct the President to call for an international seabed mining moratorium until the ISA adopts a regulatory framework. As of April 2026, 40 countries have announced their opposition to deep-seabed mining.
About the author: Caitlin Keating-Bitonti, Specialist in Natural Resources Policy
Source: This article was published by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) works exclusively for the United States Congress, providing policy and legal analysis to committees and Members of both the House and Senate, regardless of party affiliation. As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress, CRS has been a valued and respected resource on Capitol Hill for nearly a century.
The Congressional Research Service (CRS) works exclusively for the United States Congress, providing policy and legal analysis to committees and Members of both the House and Senate, regardless of party affiliation. As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress, CRS has been a valued and respected resource on Capitol Hill for nearly a century.
A journey to the bottom of the ocean, beneath Paris’s skyscrapers
An interactive exhibition underneath the streets of Paris's La Défense business district reveals another hidden world – that of the darkest depths of the ocean. Bringing together art and science, it shows the beauty and vulnerability of Earth's final frontier.
Issued on: 12/04/2026 - RFI
An interactive exhibition underneath the streets of Paris's La Défense business district reveals another hidden world – that of the darkest depths of the ocean. Bringing together art and science, it shows the beauty and vulnerability of Earth's final frontier.
Issued on: 12/04/2026 - RFI
Spheres of bioluminescence, using photobacteria from the depths of the ocean, in a sculpture created by artist Jérémie Brugidou. © Augustin Detienne
02:41
By:Ollia Horton
ADVERTISING
Beneath the Grande Arche de la Défense, in Paris’s business district, visitors equipped with headphones and pocket torches are plunged into darkness.
The "Under the Horizon" exhibition sees four artists take over this hidden urban space to bring to life another hidden world – that of the depths of the ocean.
Covering 70 percent of the Earth's surface, oceans provide more than half our oxygen and absorb excess heat caused by climate change. Home to a hive of microscopic activity, their darkest depths, reaching 2,000 metres beneath the surface, remain largely unexplored.
What are the main ocean threats?
02:41
By:Ollia Horton
ADVERTISING
Beneath the Grande Arche de la Défense, in Paris’s business district, visitors equipped with headphones and pocket torches are plunged into darkness.
The "Under the Horizon" exhibition sees four artists take over this hidden urban space to bring to life another hidden world – that of the depths of the ocean.
Covering 70 percent of the Earth's surface, oceans provide more than half our oxygen and absorb excess heat caused by climate change. Home to a hive of microscopic activity, their darkest depths, reaching 2,000 metres beneath the surface, remain largely unexplored.
What are the main ocean threats?
The "Under the Horizon" exhibition takes place in an underground space in Paris's La Défense business district, from 3-26 April. © Augustin Detienne
Creatures of the deep
As visitors enter the exhibition, a high-pitched crackling noise can be heard. These are translations of "conversations" of phytoplankton, captured by sound designer Antoine Bertin.
These tiny micro-organisms constantly send and receive chemical "messages" called metabolites, measured by biologists.
Meanwhile in the "midnight zone", artist Ugo Schiavi explores what forms human pollution might take if left to accumulate in the depths of the ocean.
His hybrid, mutant sculptures made of recycled items lurch out from the gloom, inspired by the strange creatures that inhabit this realm.
Beyond a creative interpretation, Schiavi raises the issue of the vulnerability of this part of the ocean – which contains coveted minerals including nickel, cobalt and copper, which are crucial to renewable energy technology.
Researchers and environmentalists have long warned that deep-sea diving risks destroying habitats and species that are little understood, and could upset delicate processes in the ocean that affect climate change.
Nearby, Jérémie Brugidou’s sculptures use bioluminescence produced by Phosphorus ANT-2200, a deep-sea bacteria. This form of light is used by organisms to attract prey, send signals and provide camouflage.
It also provides important information for scientific research. Molecules and proteins from bioluminescent and fluorescent species have enabled advances in imaging, molecular biology and physiology.
The big blue blindspot: why the ocean floor is still an unmapped mystery
Creatures of the deep
As visitors enter the exhibition, a high-pitched crackling noise can be heard. These are translations of "conversations" of phytoplankton, captured by sound designer Antoine Bertin.
These tiny micro-organisms constantly send and receive chemical "messages" called metabolites, measured by biologists.
Meanwhile in the "midnight zone", artist Ugo Schiavi explores what forms human pollution might take if left to accumulate in the depths of the ocean.
His hybrid, mutant sculptures made of recycled items lurch out from the gloom, inspired by the strange creatures that inhabit this realm.
Beyond a creative interpretation, Schiavi raises the issue of the vulnerability of this part of the ocean – which contains coveted minerals including nickel, cobalt and copper, which are crucial to renewable energy technology.
Researchers and environmentalists have long warned that deep-sea diving risks destroying habitats and species that are little understood, and could upset delicate processes in the ocean that affect climate change.
Nearby, Jérémie Brugidou’s sculptures use bioluminescence produced by Phosphorus ANT-2200, a deep-sea bacteria. This form of light is used by organisms to attract prey, send signals and provide camouflage.
It also provides important information for scientific research. Molecules and proteins from bioluminescent and fluorescent species have enabled advances in imaging, molecular biology and physiology.
The big blue blindspot: why the ocean floor is still an unmapped mystery
Ritual and reassurance
After visiting the darkest parts of the ocean, visitors are led into a reproduction of a sea cave, where they can make an offering to the sea goddess Yemaya, a major deity in the West African Yoruba religion.
Here, artist Shivay La Multiple has created a bubble – "somewhere in between one universe and another" – where science meets spirituality.
She says the ocean is linked to rituals in many places, as well as having sustained livelihoods in cultures across the world since the beginning of time.
"Where I grew up has definitely had an influence on my work. I was lulled by the ocean and inspired by what was around me," she told RFI, pointing to her childhood in Kanaky-New Caledonia, one of France’s overseas territories.
"These practices make us feel reassured, they help up explain the unexplainable," she says of the shrine to Yemaya, adorned with shells and flowers.
After visiting the darkest parts of the ocean, visitors are led into a reproduction of a sea cave, where they can make an offering to the sea goddess Yemaya, a major deity in the West African Yoruba religion.
Here, artist Shivay La Multiple has created a bubble – "somewhere in between one universe and another" – where science meets spirituality.
She says the ocean is linked to rituals in many places, as well as having sustained livelihoods in cultures across the world since the beginning of time.
"Where I grew up has definitely had an influence on my work. I was lulled by the ocean and inspired by what was around me," she told RFI, pointing to her childhood in Kanaky-New Caledonia, one of France’s overseas territories.
"These practices make us feel reassured, they help up explain the unexplainable," she says of the shrine to Yemaya, adorned with shells and flowers.
The sea goddess Yemaya is seen in an artwork by Shivay La Multiple at the "Under the Horizon" exhibition. © RFI / Ollia Horton
'Life outside the office'
The exhibition is part of a wider cultural plan to bring art and environmental issues to this urban area, Noellie Faustino, director of events for La Défense, told RFI.
It’s important to show that there’s "life outside of the office", she says, adding that this can be found in unexpected places – such as the hidden space beneath the la Grande Arche.
"By offering access to normally inaccessible spaces, it sparks curiosity and allows for the creation of unique exhibitions."
Faustino added that La Défense has put in place measures to significantly reduce carbon emissions by 2030, including standards for construction and the way public spaces are developed.
'Life outside the office'
The exhibition is part of a wider cultural plan to bring art and environmental issues to this urban area, Noellie Faustino, director of events for La Défense, told RFI.
It’s important to show that there’s "life outside of the office", she says, adding that this can be found in unexpected places – such as the hidden space beneath the la Grande Arche.
"By offering access to normally inaccessible spaces, it sparks curiosity and allows for the creation of unique exhibitions."
Faustino added that La Défense has put in place measures to significantly reduce carbon emissions by 2030, including standards for construction and the way public spaces are developed.
The "Takis" sculpture in La Défense, Paris's business district.
© PLD-Benedite Topuz
"We are currently creating a park at the Esplanade, right in the heart of the business district. It will be the first park in France built on a concrete slab, allowing users to enjoy tree-lined public spaces with grass."
As well as transforming the public space visually, Faustino says the park will reduce heat-related issues.
For Lauranne Germond, co-curator of "Under the Horizon" La Défense is the perfect setting to show the contrast between two very different worlds.
"On the surface of La Défense, activity and efficiency reign. There's a frenetic pace of productivity [while the exhibition is] an experience of slowing down, of letting go. It is the idea of letting oneself be carried away, of letting oneself float."
"Sous l'Horizon" ("Under the Horizon") is on until 26 April.
"We are currently creating a park at the Esplanade, right in the heart of the business district. It will be the first park in France built on a concrete slab, allowing users to enjoy tree-lined public spaces with grass."
As well as transforming the public space visually, Faustino says the park will reduce heat-related issues.
For Lauranne Germond, co-curator of "Under the Horizon" La Défense is the perfect setting to show the contrast between two very different worlds.
"On the surface of La Défense, activity and efficiency reign. There's a frenetic pace of productivity [while the exhibition is] an experience of slowing down, of letting go. It is the idea of letting oneself be carried away, of letting oneself float."
"Sous l'Horizon" ("Under the Horizon") is on until 26 April.
An artistic journey to the bottom of the ocean
Issued on:
What can be found in the abyss, thousands of metres below the surface of the ocean? In the interactive exhibition "Under the Horizon" (Sous l'horizon), four artists merge science and imagination to explore the mysteries of the deep, all while raising awareness of this fragile environment. RFI took the plunge into a secret underground space in Paris's business district to find out more.
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