Saturday, April 18, 2026

France to remove Windows from government computers in sovereignty push

France is planning to replace Windows software with open-source alternative Linux across government computers, in a move aimed at reducing its dependence on American tech giants – but experts warn the transition will be costly and slow.

Issued on: 17/04/2026 - RFI

Linux is a free operating system that anyone can use, modify and share, unlike proprietary software owned by a single company.

© Lukas / Unsplash Images

The plan was announced on 8 April by the Interministerial Directorate for Digital Affairs, the body that manages IT systems across ministries and public administrations. It involves changing the core software that runs thousands of state computers.

Windows, owned by US company Microsoft, is the most widely used computer operating system in the world. Windows 11 alone powers more than 1 billion computers worldwide.

Linux is a free system developed in Finland in 1991, and is open-source, meaning anyone can use, modify and share it.

“A free software system means you can see how it works, which guarantees transparency, but it is also collectively owned," digital security specialist Fabrice Epelboin told RFI. "It’s code that belongs to everyone, that anyone can use, adapt to their needs and improve.”

Until now, France has relied heavily on Windows – but parts of the French state have already made the switch. The national gendarmerie is largely equipped with Linux systems.

Control over data

Using software owned by Microsoft means relying on the company to run key systems.

“When you use proprietary software, you are at the mercy of espionage, you are at the mercy of American companies recovering your data," Epelboin said. "If you want to protect them, the best, if not the only, solution is to use free software.”

Free software lets users see how programmes work and gives them control over how data is handled.

Other European countries, including Spain and Germany, have already adopted similar systems.

A 'colossal' shift

Switching systems on such a large scale will be a major task. The transition will affect large numbers of public sector workers, and will require extensive training and technical work.

Instead of paying licence fees to Microsoft, spending would go towards engineers to install, maintain and adapt the systems, which could support the domestic economy by investing in local jobs.

However, the process is expected to take time. Such projects are “colossal” and exceed the duration of most political mandates, Epelboin said.

It is not yet known how many government computers will be affected, and no detailed timeline for the rollout has been made public.

Microsoft’s lobbying efforts could also slow the shift. The company spent €7 million in 2025 engaging with European Union policymakers on digital and competition rules.

Europe's defence cloud reliance risks US 'kill switch,' think tank warns

By Anna Desmarais

Published on 17/04/2026 - EURONEWS

A vast majority of EU countries rely on US cloud services for their national defence agencies, putting them at risk of a "kill switch" that shuts down service at any time.

Most European countries rely on US cloud providers for their military operations and are at risk of being exposed to a "kill switch," a new analysis found.

Brussels-based think tank Future of Technology Institute (FOTI) said that a vast majority of European countries depend on US tech companies for their national defence applications, either through direct partnerships or via European companies that use US cloud services.

These companies are at risk of a "kill switch," the idea that Washington will subpoena data stored in the cloud or impose sanctions on US cloud providers.

The US president can issue a subpoena for data under the CLOUD Act, passed during Donald Trump’s first term at the White House.

In particular, 16 European countries are at a high risk of being affected by a US kill switch: Croatia, the Czech Republic, Denmark, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, Ireland, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Slovakia, Slovenia and the United Kingdom.

Seven more countries are at medium risk because they have indirect exposure to US cloud infrastructure through European contractors that built their cloud system: Belgium, France, Greece, Italy, Luxembourg, Spain and the Netherlands.

Cori Crider, executive director of FOTI, said the US used this kill switch in 2025 when Microsoft blocked the accounts of ICC chief prosecutor Karim Khan after Trump imposed sanctions.

In another example, Maxar Technologies reportedly restricted Ukraine’s access to its satellite imagery after the US paused intelligence sharing, Ukrainian media reported.

“A kind of kill switch risk from the United States is no longer some sort of theoretical discussion … this is a genuine, imminent risk that Europe doesn’t have the luxury to ignore anymore,” Crider said.

The researchers could not find enough data for Bulgaria, Cyprus, Malta and Sweden to determine how vulnerable their military cloud systems are.

Microsoft, Google and Oracle given most defence contracts

For its study, FOTI evaluated procurement notices for government contracts that are worth over 143,000 and checked national defence sites for references to “cloud,” “Microsoft,” “Google,” “Amazon Web Services,” and “Oracle”.

Microsoft is the largest cloud provider for European defence agencies, with its systems being used by 19 countries, the study found. Google and Oracle also received defence contracts.

The highest-risk countries are relying directly on services from US cloud companies that might not be “air gapped,” which means the system is physically disconnected from the global cloud infrastructure.

These systems remain vulnerable because they “require regular updates and depend on maintenance from the US service provider,” which puts them in jeopardy if sanctions are imposed, the study said.

One Swedish estimate said that US cloud software could be used for up to 30 days after sanctions, after which the licenses will expire, according to Tobias Bacherle, researcher with FOTI.

In the medium-risk countries, the immediate contractor for their cloud system is a European company that uses a US provider, the report said.

For example, Dutch parliamentary readings note that US hyperscaler technology built their current cloud, but that their cloud is not run directly by these companies.

FOTI’s analysis is a “conservative estimate” of where the Big Tech cloud providers are working, researchers said, because it is hard to identify every contract that implicates US technology, and many of the contracts are classified.

Austria the only one independent of US hyperscalers

Austria is the only country to have begun a government-wide shift away from proprietary cloud providers, according to the study.

The defence ministry has supposedly moved away from Big Tech companies towards NextCloud, an open-source provider, and LibreOffice, a Microsoft alternative.

Last year, the country’s armed forces also reportedly moved 16,000 workstations off of Microsoft Office.

“Austria seems to be the only case that is quite independent or as independent as it gets right now,” Bacherle said.

While the Netherlands is currently considered medium risk, the researchers flagged it as a potential leader for Europe’s sovereign military cloud solutions.

That’s because the Ministry of Defence has recently partnered with the Dutch telecom company KPN and French contractor Thales to build a sovereign defence cloud without US providers.

What do the US hyperscalers have in Europe?

Cloud providers Amazon, Google, and Microsoft have introduced “sovereign” cloud options within Europe.

Amazon created the AWS European Sovereign Cloud to “help customers meet their evolving sovereignty needs,” which stores data in the EU, is independent and is compliant with the bloc’s regulations.

Similar sovereign options from Google and Microsoft say that data will be stored and supervised locally to remain compliant with local laws.

Crider called these efforts by tech companies “sovereign-washing” because in the event of sanctions, the companies will be unable to update their software.

“These days, they know we want tech sovereignty, so there’s some kind of sovereign cloud on offer from basically every dominant player,” she said.

Euronews Next contacted Google, Microsoft, Oracle and Amazon about their sovereign cloud systems but did not receive an immediate reply.

Four years of Gepard in Ukraine: How the vintage German weapon is proving its worth

Jürgen Schoch, Head of Training at Krauss-Maffei, with the then Federal Chancellor Olaf Scholz, 25 August 2022 Marcus Brandt/dpa via AP

By Johanna Urbancik

Published on 17/04/2026 - EURONEWS

Four years after Berlin's decision to deliver it, it has become clear that the once decommissioned Gepard tank is now a key system in Ukraine's air defence — and one of the most effective "drone killers" in the fight against Russia.

Germany announced the delivery of Gepard self-propelled anti-aircraft guns to Ukraine shortly after Russia's full-scale invasion four years ago, marking the first heavy weapons of Western design that Berlin supplied from its own stocks.

On 26 April 2022, Defence Minister Christine Lambrecht confirmed the decision on the sidelines of a meeting of around 40 supporting states at Ramstein airbase.

The systems came from industrial stocks and the export had been approved the day before, Lambrecht said at the time.

Germany has since delivered at least 55 Gepard systems to Ukraine, where they have become an integral part of the country's air defence.

The announcement came shortly after Russian massacres in Bucha became known following the town's liberation by Ukrainian forces at the end of March 2022.

Before the start of Russia's full-scale invasion, Germany had offered to supply 5,000 helmets to Ukraine — a response that drew widespread criticism.

The Gepard was the first heavy weaponry Germany delivered without a so-called ring exchange, in which Berlin would supply weapons to a third country that would then send Soviet-type equipment to Ukraine.

Fifteen Gepard anti-aircraft guns were delivered in July 2022.

'Best drone killer'

The Gepard has been labelled the "best drone killer" by several Ukrainian media outlets.

Russia regularly fires more than 500 drones at Ukraine, most of which are neutralised by air defence systems.

According to Ukrainian outlet Euromaidan Press, the Gepard plays a central role in air defence due to its combination of radar and 35mm cannons, which create a dense cloud of fire and can reliably hit drones.

Air defence missiles such as Patriot or IRIS-T often cost several hundred thousand to several million dollars per deployment and are available in limited quantities.

The Gepard uses significantly cheaper 35mm ammunition and is therefore particularly suitable for defence against low-cost drones.

Germany resumed ammunition production for the Gepard due to export restrictions from Switzerland and high demand from Ukraine.

Rheinmetall set up its own production capacities in Germany and has been producing new ammunition since then.

The German defence company will supply Ukraine with a further 180,000 rounds of 35mm Gepard ammunition, with deliveries scheduled to begin in 2026, according to Rheinmetall.

Why Germany phased it out

The Gepard was phased out of the German Bundeswehr as part of post-Cold War reforms.

It was considered complex and expensive to operate, particularly because of its radar and fire-control technology and specialised ammunition.

The Bundeswehr was under political pressure to reduce expenditure and downsize its structures.

Scenarios for which the Gepard had been developed — such as defence against low-flying aircraft or combat helicopters in conventional warfare — were considered increasingly unlikely.

The focus shifted to foreign missions such as in Afghanistan, where ground-based air defence played little role.

The Army Air Defence Force was dissolved in the early 2010s, and the Gepard lost its organisational anchoring within the Bundeswehr.

The Bundeswehr focused on alternative air defence concepts, including lighter, more mobile solutions such as shoulder-launched missiles like the Stinger.

It was only with Russia's full-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022 that this decision was reassessed.

The massive deployment of drones and cruise missiles showed that capable short-range air defence systems continue to play an important role.

The retirement of the Gepard had created a capability gap, particularly in cost-effective defence against drones — precisely the scenario in which the system has proved particularly effective.

The Bundeswehr will purchase the Skyranger system for similar purposes in the coming years, with around 600 to be procured.

This system is being built by Rheinmetall and is intended to strengthen air defence, particularly against drones.

Saunas surge in popularity in Britain amid stress, but are the benefits proven?

By Roselyne Min with AP

Published on 16/04/2026 - EURONEWS

As Finnish tradition is expanding rapidly, the UK is projected to lead Europe in sauna market revenue by 2033, data suggests.

As work-related stress peaks in the United Kingdom, many Brits are now turning to saunas.

Work-related stress in the UK hit record levels between 2024 and 2025, with nearly one million workers reporting stress, depression or anxiety, according to the UK’s Britain's national regulator for workplace health and safety.

Against that backdrop, the appeal of an hour or so of calm is not hard to understand.

Owners of Temz, a floating sauna in London, say it offers an alternative to endless scrolling.

“It's just such a good way to just treat yourself, almost, to that 50 minutes of calm and serenity where you can let go, take that time for yourself,” said Amy Wilson Hardy, co-owner of TEMZ Sauna.

“And people do come out as a different person and we see it so often. People come in a bit stressed and then they leave just with a sauna glow and a relaxed look on their face. So it's brilliant to see.”

On the floating pod on the River Thames, the ritual is simple but demanding.

Guests lower themselves into cold baths as the sauna staff keeps a close eye on the clock. Timing is central to what is known as contrast therapy, before making the short sprint back to the warmth of the sauna.

“It's just such a brilliant place to come, obviously,” said Sue Harper-Clark, a visitor at the Temz sauna and a physiotherapist.

“I've been in a sauna before, but I've never done an ice bath. So obviously, the combination of the sauna and the ice bath was something just a little bit novel.”

While alternating between heat and cold is rooted in Finnish sauna culture, another modern reinterpretation has spread worldwide in recent years, driven by the rise of biohacking, a wellness movement that promotes what it says is optimising the body through controlled stress such as heat and cold exposure.

But are there measurable benefits to contrast therapy?

Heather Massey, associate professor in extreme environments and physiology at the University of Portsmouth, has studied both ends of the temperature spectrum.

“We know that that initial response to cold water, what we term as the cold shock response, causes a big gasp and then rapid breathing and an increase in heart rate and blood pressure as well,” Massey said.

But while anecdotal evidence is compelling, Massey urges caution about the growing number of health claims surrounding sauna and cold exposure.

“We just don't have that evidence in terms of what the benefits could be, and also how that benefit might come about,” she said.

Keah O'Reilly, a sauna visitor who works as a recruitment executive, is less concerned by the scientific uncertainty.

“Well, the last time I did it I noticed a big difference. I was still buzzing two or three hours later. So it was real uplifting. I'd never done anything like it before. And to be honest sitting in a sauna in a gym, you feel enclosed and stuff, whereas this is gorgeous,” she said.

Massey points to the social and environmental context, which may be just as important as the physical effects.

“A lot of the qualitative research that's coming out would start to suggest, particularly being in a social group of like-minded individuals doing something with moderate challenges involved, whether that's a physical challenge or an exercise-type challenge, exercise itself," Massey said.

"And being outdoors in nature may also be contributing factors. So these need to be considered as well."

In Finland, there is roughly one sauna for every two people. In the UK, the practice is expanding rapidly, with the country projected to lead Europe in sauna market revenue by 2033, according to market research group Grand View Research.

Why birds and foxes could act as early warning systems of antibiotic resistance across ecosystems

By Indrabati Lahiri

Published on 16/04/2026 - EURONEWS

The study was conducted across wild, urban and rural areas, highlighting the widespread nature of antibiotic resistance.

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has been a growing problem for a number of years now, with resistance against antimicrobials key for human medicine being especially worrying

However, new research has found that wildlife such as foxes and birds could be critical early warning systems for antibiotic resistance at the ecosystem level.

The study, which was first published in the Frontiers of Microbiology journal, evaluates the presence of enzyme-encoding genes in wildlife faecal samples, which can prove resistance to essential antibiotics like third-generation cephalosporins (3GCs), used to treat sepsis, pneumonia and meningitis.

These genes can spread through bacterial groups like ESKAPE, which are particularly resistant and can often sidestep antibacterial agents. One ESKAPE group bacterium, Klebsiella pneumoniae, has even spread much beyond systems and places directly exposed to antibiotics and can cause severe infections in humans.

“We isolated a high-risk ST307 clone of K pneumoniae and NDM-5 carbapenemase, an enzyme variant that can inactivate antibiotics, from wildlife living far from human activity,” Dr Mauro Conter, an associate professor at the Department of Veterinary Medical Sciences at the University of Parma, said.

“This confirms the role of wildlife as reservoirs of clinically relevant resistance, which means that wildlife surveillance could provide an early warning system of resistance spreading beyond clinical settings.”

Birds and foxes provide warning signs of antibiotic resistance

The study included almost 500 faecal samples from crows, magpies, red foxes and several species of water birds.

These were taken while animals were moving as usual through rural, urban and wild areas, collecting AMR across regions and ecosystems without having received antibiotics themselves. They were tested for Klebsiella spp, a bacterial genus that includes K pneumoniae and other highly dangerous pathogens.

Klebsiella spp in particular produce carbapenemases, which can render last-resort antibiotics used to treat severe infections caused by multidrug-resistant bacteria useless.

The results showed that birds are primarily responsible for dispersing resistance by air over long distances, whereas foxes contribute most to short-range AMR dissemination on land.

Klebsiella spp was present in 32 samples, while K pneumoniae was in 2% of samples, mainly in foxes and waterbirds.

“Even a 2% prevalence in wildlife represents environmental contamination by high-risk clones. K pneumoniae readily spills over through water and waste routes, creating a continuous human-animal-environment resistance cycle,” Conter noted.

Compared to 2024 data, K pneumoniae isolates in this research also had higher resistance to almost all antibiotic classes.

“Our study showed that wildlife resistance exceeds clinical rates,” explained Conter.

“100% of K pneumoniae isolates from wildlife in our study were resistant to 3GCs. Compared to this, only 19.6% of K pneumoniae isolates from human patients in Italy were resistant to 3GCs, according to the latest European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control surveillance data.”

How to fight antibiotic resistance at ecosystem levels

To curb the growing trend of AMR bacteria across wildlife and ecosystems not directly exposed to antibiotics, companies and governments alike need to take active steps to reduce antibiotic pollution in wastewater.

Similarly, sewage treatment needs to be enhanced, while antimicrobials in livestock should be used more cautiously to limit the use of key antibiotics in human medicine.

However, the study still has limitations regarding transmission links between wildlife and humans and the prevalence of resistance.

Larger studies could highlight the real diversity of bacteria present in wildlife. However, they can be expensive and challenging to implement.

“What we see is a complex problem that requires ‘one health’ solutions addressing antibiotic pollution, climate-driven wildlife behavioral changes, and bacterial population dynamics,” Conter noted.

“Our data justify routine wildlife AMR monitoring as a public health early warning system, guiding environmental interventions before resistance reaches clinical settings.”

'She was taking handfuls of earth and eating it': Meet the artist encouraging people to consume soil

By Amber Louise Bryce
Published on 18/04/2026 - EURONEWS

In honour of the upcoming Earth Day (Wednesday 22 April), Euronews Culture spoke with Amsterdam-based artist masharu, whose Museum of Edible Earth is currently on display at London’s Somerset House.

For Dr. masharu, it all began with a sudden craving to eat earth.

While working as a photographer, the Amsterdam-based academic and artist developed what’s known as geophagia (or geophagy) - the practice of consuming earthen materials like clay or soil.

As masharu dug deeper into their desires, a world within a world revealed itself; one where Facebook groups filled with hundreds of members swapped clays to eat, and Japanese restaurants used soil as an ingredient.

While commonly linked to certain cultural traditions and rituals, or an eating disorder known as pica, geophagia is, it turns out, far more common than most might realise.

Founder of the Museum of Edible Earth, Dr. Masharu. David Parry PA Media

In 2017, Masharu founded the Museum of Edible Earth, a nomadic project that blends their scientific background with activism and artistry, and showcases over 600 edible soils from 44 different countries.

“[It includes] interactions with soil scientists, sometimes chemical engineers, sometimes anthropologists. But the most important part is, of course, [people’s] experiences of eating earth, which is shared with the public,” masharu told Euronews Culture.

In honour of Earth Day, the project is currently housed at London’s Somerset House, and coincides with an array of other workshops and talks that explore our relationship to the planet and solutions to climate change.

Inside the exhibition, hundreds of tiny jars filled with powdery earth-like substances line a shelved wall - sampled from all across the world. Beside them sits a long communal tasting table, where visitors can try a spoonful of dirt for themselves.

Museum of Edible Earth at Somerset House David Parry PA Media Assignments

This participatory element was always most important for masharu, who hopes the experience will bring people together and reshape how they view our natural environments.

“It's about connection to earth and changing the notion of earth being dirty,” they said. “People in cities are often not as connected to soil, in the sense of touching soil, or walking the land barefoot. There’s a lot of disconnection between humans and earth, which has been happening over the last few centuries.”
Coming back down to earth

While many might wretch at the thought of consuming soil, the practice of geophagia dates back millions of years.

One of the earliest known medical documentations was by the Greek physician Hippocrates, who noted cravings for non-foods among pregnant women. Other historical evidence points to it being a popular practice within certain Indigenous tribes and African societies.

“Earth has been very important in many cultures, [seen] as a symbol of fertility, a life-giving force,” masharu said, citing some peoples’ beliefs that eating soil can even be medicinal.

Museum of Edible Earth at Somerset House. David Parry PA Media Assignments

These documented experiences - both old and new - form the heart of their exhibition, which features many fascinating, insightful, and sometimes outlandish stories.

One of the most memorable involves a woman named Stanislava Monstvilienė from Lithuania, who claims that eating only earth healed her from cancer - something not backed by any medical research.

“I don't know if it is true, but this was her story. We were going into the woods with her and she was taking handfuls of earth and eating it,” said masharu.

But even when spurious, every experience collected becomes an intriguing window into a human taboo: consuming something we’ve been told all our lives is disgusting and dangerous.

How dangerous is eating dirt?

Although Somerset House’s samples have been tested for safety and come with disclaimers, eating soil - especially straight from the ground - still has potentially serious health risks, including bacterial or parasitic infections.

“[Earth] can have pollutants and microorganisms, which are not as good for the human body, especially since we are not so connected to earth anymore and our microbiomes are poor,” said masharu.

Museum of Edible Earth. Photo by Jester van Schuylenburch

However, when asked if there’s ever been any bad outcomes from their tasting sessions, masharu remembers only one almost devastating incident in the Netherlands.

“We did an event where we developed cocktails with clay. I worked with a professional cocktail maker. After this event, a lot of people felt sick with diarrhoea and vomiting, and we were like, oh no!”

After investigating the issue and sending out detailed questionnaires, they realised there was one person who did not drink the cocktails but was still sick, meaning - cue huge relief - it was likely caused by the dinner at the event.

In fact, the clay cocktails might have even helped reduce the food poisoning’s symptoms, according to masharu.

“I presented all the information and data that I collected to this mathematician and she did statistics on it. She said that the people who drank the cocktails with clay, or drank more cocktails with clay, were less likely to vomit compared to people who drank less clay,” they said.

Alongside highlighting the health and cultural aspects of eating earth, masharu's project also shows how interconnected something as simple as soil can be; reflecting not only urgent environmental issues, but those relating to gender, race and class.

“[The way we think about eating] earth is also often connected to poverty, so it [reflects] class. And then to gender, because in some places I've been to it’s associated with some kind of femininity. So, for men it would be [considered] shameful to eat earth,” they explained.

“It is a very intersectional practice, and what started with my personal desires became a very broad subject that also took me around Earth.”

Museum of Edible Earth is on display at Somerset House in London, UK, until 26 April 2026.

Forget relying on solar power: NASA plans to put nuclear reactors on the surface of the Moon

By Indrabati Lahiri

Published on 16/04/2026 - EURONEWS

Nuclear power on the Moon would address several constraints posed by solar power, such as long lunar nights with no sunlight and limited mission ranges.

Space capacities have grown significantly in the last several years, with NASA’s Artemis II mission taking astronauts Reid Wiseman, Christina Koch, Victor Glover, and Jeremy Hansen to the Moon in the first lunar mission in more than 50 years.

Now, the US space agency is eyeing an even more ambitious goal: to put nuclear reactors on the Moon by 2030 through its Fission Surface Power Project, with plans to launch a medium-power reactor into orbit by 2028.

For this tall order, NASA will have to join forces with the US Department of Energy and the Department of Defence.

The White House Office of Science and Technology (OSTP) has already shared new guidelines for federal agencies to develop a roadmap for space nuclear technology.

“Nuclear power in space will give us the sustained electricity, heating, and propulsion essential to a permanent presence on the Moon, Mars, and beyond,” OSTP said in a post on X.

Why solar power is limited in space

This shift is mainly because solar power and other traditional energy sources will not be sufficient to reliably sustain long-term human settlements on the Moon or other planets, such as Mars.

The lunar night is a key reason for this, as a single night on the Moon lasts around 14 days on Earth. During this time, solar panels cannot be used, and batteries lack sufficient capacity to support an entire base through the cold, dark periods.

Relying solely on solar power also makes it harder for programmes like Artemis to explore permanently shadowed regions such as the lunar south pole, which never sees sunlight but contains valuable water ice.

In contrast, nuclear reactors provide mostly continuous, abundant power for years through nuclear fission, regardless of weather, sunlight or location. Nuclear electric propulsion can also help spacecraft carry out complex, long-duration missions without risking fuel depletion.

“The time has come for America to get underway on nuclear power in space,” NASA administrator Jared Isaacman posted on X.

The Fission Surface Power Project is expected to have a design capacity of 40-100 kilowatts of electricity, which should be enough to sustain a small lunar habitat with scientific labs and resource-extraction equipment for several years.

This project is expected to help the US strengthen its space technology position relative to China and Russia, while providing a lunar test bed to advance technologies for future crewed missions to Mars.

The system is expected to operate autonomously with minimal maintenance required by astronauts, while remaining scalable and modular. It will have to account for applications which can support both space propulsion and future life on the Moon.

IMPERIALISM IN SPACE

The U.S. Space Force: An Overview And Defense Primer – Analysis

Artist rendering of the Space Force X-37B Credit: US Space Force

April 18, 2026
By Jennifer DiMascio and Hannah D. Dennis
The Congressional Research Service (CRS)

The U.S. Space Force is the sixth branch of the Armed Forces, established under the Department of the Air Force (DAF) with the enactment of the National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2020 (FY2020 NDAA; P.L. 116-92). According to Title 10, Section 9081, of the U.S. Code, “The Space Force shall be organized, trained, and equipped to—(1) provide freedom of operation for the United States in, from, and to space; (2) conduct space operations; and (3) protect the interests of the United States in space.”

Since the creation of the Space Force, space has become an increasingly important domain for the United States—as well as for adversaries with growing space capabilities. In 2025, President Donald Trump issued executive orders to create a space-intensive initiative known as Golden Dome and to ensure “American Space Superiority.” Space Force officials are reportedly considering doubling the size of the force. Congress will play a role in deciding whether or not to fund these initiatives, and in overseeing their progress.
Why the Space Force Was Created

Since the 1980s, U.S. policymakers have become increasingly concerned about potential adversaries operating in the space domain. The United States and Soviet Union tested anti-satellite (ASAT) missiles in the 1980s. The United States last conducted such a test in 1985, citing the harm resulting debris could cause to spacecraft in orbit. The People’s Republic of China (PRC, or China) in 2007 became the third country to test an ASAT weapon. Military commanders reportedly have said the PRC test was a turning point, as it exposed a potential vulnerability of U.S. reliance on satellites. After 2007, China and Russia continued to develop military space capabilities. A decade later, some Members of Congress and the first Trump Administration proposed a distinct military service devoted to countering space, cyber space, and missile threats. The FY2020 NDAA authorized the establishment of the service on December 20, 2019.

Space Force Mission and Functions

The Space Force’s mission is to “secure our Nation’s interests in, from, and to space.” The mission statement refers to each of the service’s “core functions”:

In space. Protecting the joint force and nation from space and counterspace threats to achieve “space superiority” (the condition under which forces can operate without prohibitive interference while denying adversaries space control).

From space. Delivering global mission operations like satellite communications; positioning, navigation, and timing; and missile warning.

To space. Providing assured space access through the service’s launch, range, and control network infrastructure.

In addition to these core functions, Space Force carries out four cross-cutting enterprise functions: intelligence, cyberspace operations, command and control, and space domain awareness (detecting, characterizing, attributing, predicting, and targeting objects and activities in space).

Space Force Organization

The U.S. Space Force and the U.S. Air Force are two separate and distinct military uniformed services with the same civilian leader in the DAF. The Chief of Space Operations (CSO) is the highest-ranking uniformed space advisor and reports to the civilian Secretary of the Air Force. The current CSO, General Chance B. Saltzman, was appointed in November 2022. The Office of the CSO and the Space Force Headquarters are located at the Pentagon. The Space Force organizes, trains, and equips space force personnel, called Guardians, to support unified combatant commands such as U.S. Space Command.

The CSO oversees a three-level command structure. Two- or three-star generals lead three mission-focused field commands. Colonels lead units called deltas that are subordinate to field commands. Lieutenant colonels or majors lead smaller Space Force squadrons.

The Space Force’s three field commands are Combat Forces Command (CFC), previously Space Operations Command (SpOC); Space Training and Readiness Command(STARCOM); and Space Systems Command (SSC). CFC develops tactics, techniques, procedures, and force-generation models, among other roles. CFC is based at Peterson Space Force Base (SFB) in Colorado. STARCOM prepares and trains Guardians at Patrick SFB in Florida. SSC, based at Los Angeles Air Force Base in California, handles acquisition.

Space Force Budget

Congress appropriated the requested total of $26.1 billion for FY2026 in discretionary funding for the Space Force in the Department of Defense Appropriations Act, 2026 (P.L. 119-75, Division A). Congress provided funding for types of accounts that were in some cases more than (procurement and personnel) and in other cases less than (research, development, test, and evaluation [RDT&E]) the service’s request. For the Space Force, the act provided $14.9 billion for RDT&E, $5.7 billion for operations and maintenance (O&M), $4.0 billion for procurement, and $1.5 billion for military personnel (MILPERS). The FY2026 MILPERS request planned for an end-strength of 10,400 military personnel, 600 (6%) more than in FY2025. The National Defense Authorization Act for Fiscal Year 2026 (FY2026 NDAA; P.L. 119-60, §401) authorized the service’s requested increase in end strength.

According to a CRS review of FY2027 budget documents published by the Department of Defense (using a “secondary Department of War designation” under Executive Order 14347, dated September 5, 2025), in FY2026, the Space Force plans to spend $5.9 billion in mandatory defense funding from the 2025 reconciliation law (P.L. 119-21). (Such funding carried a five-year period of availability.)

For FY2027, the Space Force requested a total of $71.3 billion, according to a CRS review of the department’s budget documents. The request included $59.2 billion in discretionary funding from regular appropriations and $12.1 billion in mandatory funding anticipated to come from an FY2027 reconciliation bill. Taken together, the discretionary and mandatory request is 123% more than the FY2026 enacted total of $31.9 billion. Of the discretionary request for 2027, $38.4 billion (65%) is for RDT&E. The Space Force has also requested $9.6 billion in discretionary funding for procurement, $9.3 billion for O&M, and $1.9 billion for MILPERS. The Administration has not yet released an end strength request for FY2027.

Major Space Acquisition Programs

Congress provided FY2026 funding and DOD has requested FY2027 funding for the Space Force to develop and procure launch vehicles, spacecraft (satellites and orbital vehicles), and terrestrial systems and equipment. Major acquisition programs included the following: The National Security Space Launch (NSSL) program procures commercial launch services for the Space Force, Air Force, Navy, National Reconnaissance Office, Space Development Agency, and other government agencies. This program is intended to ensure U.S. access to space.
The GPS Enterprise provides 24-hour-a-day, worldwide, all-weather three-dimensional positioning, navigation, and timing (PNT) information for military and civilian users.
Missile Warning Systems supply warning of strategic missile attacks using the existing Space-Based Infrared System. The Space Force is developing the Overhead Persistent Infrared and Resilient (OPIR) Missile Warning and Missile Tracking program. Section 8149 of P.L. 119-75 prohibited any pause, cancellation, or termination of OPIR programs.
Satellite Communications (SATCOM) Projects deliver three types of SATCOM. Strategic SATCOM refers to Nuclear Command, Control, and Communications (NC3); protected SATCOM is designed to enable communications to deployed forces in contested environments; and wideband/narrowband SATCOM is designed to offer large amounts of data transfer in less-contested environments.

Under the Proliferated Space Warfighter Architecture, the Space Force is soliciting, purchasing, and launching low-Earth-orbit satellites to create a constellation that will conduct multiple missions. The missions would overlap with the systems conducting PNT, missile warning, and communications. These satellites are intended to fly at lower altitudes and in greater numbers, providing additional capabilities and more resilience.

President Trump’s Executive Order 14186 directed the development of a next-generation missile shield called Golden Dome for America (GDA) with many space-related components. Space Force General Michael A. Guetlein is directing the effort. FY2027 budget documents detailed programs related to GDA within the Space Force, a Golden Dome Fund, the Missile Defense Agency, and other military departments.

Potential Considerations for CongressSpace Force officials reportedly have said its military and civilian workforce could double over the next decade. Congress may or may not seek information or a study about the organization, size, composition, cost, and other impacts of the possible expansion, including possible impacts on infrastructure, personnel, development and procurement programs, ground systems, and the industrial base.

Congress may or may not consider oversight of executive branch goals to develop and advance Golden Dome and ensure “American superiority in space,” including assessing related system architectures, acquisition requirements, funding, facilities, and personnel requirements for executing those plans.

About the authors:

Jennifer DiMascio, Analyst in U.S. Defense Policy
Hannah D. Dennis, Analyst in U.S. Defense Policy

Source: This article was published by the Congressional Research Service (CRS).

The Congressional Research Service (CRS) works exclusively for the United States Congress, providing policy and legal analysis to committees and Members of both the House and Senate, regardless of party affiliation. As a legislative branch agency within the Library of Congress, CRS has been a valued and respected resource on Capitol Hill for nearly a century.

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Saturday, April 18, 2026

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