Pallab Ghosh - BBC Science correspondent
Tue, December 19, 2023
DNA analysis showed that this young man travelled to Cambridgeshire from the furthest reaches of the Roman Empire 2,000 years ago
How did a young man born 2,000 years ago near what is now southern Russia, end up in the English countryside?
DNA sleuths have retraced his steps while shedding light on a key episode in the history of Roman Britain.
Research shows that the skeleton found in Cambridgeshire is of a man from a nomadic group known as Sarmatians.
It is the first biological proof that these people came to Britain from the furthest reaches of the Roman empire and that some lived in the countryside.
The remains were discovered during excavations to improve the A14 road between Cambridge and Huntingdon.
The scientific techniques used will help reveal the usually untold stories of ordinary people behind great historical events.
They include reading the genetic code in fossilised bone fragments that are hundreds of thousands of years old, which shows an individual's ethnic origin.
Gold coin proves 'fake' Roman emperor was real
Dr Marina Silva extracted the ancient DNA and then made sense of its genetic code
Archaeologists discovered a complete, well-preserved skeleton of a man, they named Offord Cluny 203645 - a combination of the Cambridgeshire village he was found in and his specimen number. He was buried by himself without any personal possessions in a ditch, so there was little to go on to establish his identity.
Dr Marina Silva of the Ancient Genomics Laboratory at the Francis Crick Institute, in London, extracted and decoded Offord's ancient DNA from a tiny bone taken from his inner ear, which was the best preserved part of the entire skeleton.
"This is not like testing the DNA of someone who is alive," she explained.
"The DNA is very fragmented and damaged. However, we were able to (decode) enough of it.
"The first thing we saw was that genetically he was very different to the other Romano-British individuals studied so far."
The latest ancient DNA analysis methods are now able to flesh out the human stories behind events that, until recently, have been reconstructed only by documents and archaeological evidence.
These largely tell the tales of the wealthy and powerful.
Map of the Roman Empire at the start of the 3rd century AD and the areas of in the Middle East inhabited by the Sarmatians
The latest research is a detective story which uses cutting edge forensic science to unravel the mystery of an ordinary person - a young man buried in a ditch in Cambridgeshire between 126 and 228 AD, during the Roman occupation of Britain.
At first, archaeologists thought Offord to be an unremarkable discovery of a local man. But DNA analysis at Dr Silva's lab showed that he was from the furthest reaches of the Roman Empire, an area that is currently southern Russia, Armenia, and Ukraine.
The analysis showed him to be a Sarmatian, who are Iranian-speaking people, renowned for their horse-riding skills.
So how did he end up in a sleepy backwater of the empire so far from home?
To find the answers, a team from the archaeology department of Durham University used another exciting analysis technique to examine his fossilised teeth, which have chemical traces of what he ate.
Analysis of his teeth showed that his diet had gradually changed since the age of five
Teeth develop over time, so just like tree rings, each layer records a snapshot of the chemicals that surrounded them at that moment in time.
The analysis showed that until the age of six he ate millets and sorghum grains, known scientifically as C4 crops, which are plentiful in the region where Sarmatians were known to have lived.
But over time, analysis showed a gradual decrease in his consumption of these grains and more wheat, found in western Europe, according to Prof Janet Montgomery.
"The (analysis) tells us that he, and not his ancestors, made the journey to Britain. As he grew up, he migrated west, and these plants disappeared from his diet."
A scene depicting the defeat of the Sarmatian army by Roman forces in 175 AD
Historical records indicate that Offord could have been a cavalry man's son, or possibly his slave. They show that around the time he lived, a unit of the Sarmatian cavalry incorporated into the Roman army was posted to Britain.
The DNA evidence confirms this picture, according to Dr Alex Smith of MOLA Headland Infrastructure, the company that led the excavation.
"This is the first biological evidence," he told BBC News.
"The availability of these DNA and chemical analysis techniques means that we can now ask different questions and look at how societies formed, their make-up and how they evolved in the Roman period.
"It suggests that there was much greater movement, not just in the cities but also the countryside."
The remains were discovered as part of excavations undertaken as part of the A14 road improvement scheme between Cambridge and Huntingdon
Dr Pontus Skoglund, who heads the ancient genomics laboratory at the Crick, told BBC News that the new technology is transforming our understanding of the past.
"The main impact of ancient DNA to date has been improving our understanding of the Stone and Bronze Ages, but with better techniques, we are also starting to transform our understanding of the Roman and later periods."
The details have been published in the journal, Current Biology.
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World's oldest known fort was constructed by hunter-gatherers 8,000 years ago in Siberia
Jennifer Nalewicki
Tue, December 19, 2023
An aerial view of the remnants of a fort in Siberia. .
Hunter-gatherers built the oldest known fort in the world about 8,000 years ago in Siberia, a new study finds.
Archaeologists have long associated fortresses with permanent agricultural settlements. However, this cluster of fortified structures reveals that prehistoric groups were constructing protective edifices much earlier than originally thought.
The new research rewrites our understanding of early human societies, according to the study, published Dec. 1 in the journal Antiquity.
These hunter-gatherers "defy conventional stereotypes that depict such societies as basic and nomadic, unveiling their capacity to construct intricate structures," study co-author Tanja Schreiber, an archaeologist at Free University of Berlin, told Live Science in an email.
Located along the Amnya River in western Siberia, remains of the Amnya fort include roughly 20 pit-house depressions scattered across the site, which is divided into two sections: Amnya I and Amnya II. Radiocarbon dating confirmed that the settlement was first inhabited during the Mesolithic, or Middle Stone Age, according to the study.
When constructed, each pit house would have been protected by earthen walls and wooden palisades — two construction elements that suggest "advanced agricultural and defensive capabilities" by the inhabitants, the archaeologists said in a statement.
Related: Prehistoric population once lived in Siberia but mysteriously vanished, genetic study finds
"One of the Amnya fort's most astonishing aspects is the discovery that approximately 8,000 years ago, hunter-gatherers in the Siberian Taiga built intricate defense structures," Schreiber said. "This challenges traditional assumptions that monumental constructions were solely the work of agricultural communities."
It's unknown what triggered the need for these fortified structures in the first place, but the strategic location overlooking the river would have not only been an ideal lookout point for potential threats but also allowed hunter-gatherers to keep tabs on their fishing and hunting grounds, the researchers noted.
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It's also a mystery who ordered the fort's construction.
"It remains uncertain whether these constructions were commissioned by those in authority or if the entire community collaborated in constructing them for the purpose of protecting people or valuables," Schreiber said. "Ethnohistorical records offer a nuanced comprehension of these forts, disclosing various potential reasons for fortifying residences."
Ancient forts were built for a number of reasons, according to these records, "such as securing possessions or individuals, handling armed conflicts, addressing imbalances in attacker-defender ratios, thwarting raids and functioning as elaborate signals by influential chiefs," Schreiber said.
Researchers Test 2,400-Year-Old Leather and Realize It's Made of Human Skin
Isaac Schultz
Wed, December 20, 2023
Leather samples, including human skin, from Scythian sites in Ukraine.
Scythians in modern-day Ukraine made leather out of human skin, a team of researchers has determined, likely as a macabre trophy item. The discovery affirms a claim by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote extensively on the Scythian way of life.
In their work, the researchers use paleoproteomics to establish the sources of leather found on 14 different Scythian sites in southern Ukraine. The manifold sources—sheep, goat, cattle, horse, and yes, human—suggest that the equestrian steppe groups had a sophisticated knowledge of leatherworking. The team’s research was published last week in PLOS One.
Their weapon of choice on foot was the battle-ax, Herodotus added, and archaeological evidence suggests that the Scythians adored their horses. As the researchers noted, Herodotus detailed stories of Scythians drinking the blood of the defeated, using severed heads as a bargaining token for booty, and sewing together scalps to make clothing. Importantly for this line of research, Herodotus also said that “Many too take off the skin, nails and all, from their dead enemies’ right hands, and make coverings for their quivers.”
A silver bowl and golden cone from Scythian burials depicting leather garments.
The fur samples were identified as red fox and animals in the cat and squirrel families. The team could not get a taxonomic ID on 26% of the samples they identified, but the majority of the identified samples were likely goat (C. hircus.) The runner-up was sheep leather (~19%), while the other leather sources were roughly evenly represented in the samples. Two of the leather samples were from horse, and two—probably the reason you’re here—were human skin.
Scrutiny of the human leather made the team conclude that the skin bits were crafted on the top parts of their respective quivers; the rest of the quivers were made from animal leather. But even the animal leather quivers used a combination of different skins in their creation; the team posits that “each archer made their own quiver using the materials available at the moment.”
Scythians’ prowess on battlefields didn’t get in the way of a good time: the British Museum notes that various Greek authors documented a heavy drinking culture among the Scythians, and Herodotus even detailed a sort of ancient hot box (until now I didn’t know the word ‘weed’ shows up on the British Museum website).
New research continues to reshape the modern image of Scythians. They were much more than fearsome nomadic warriors. In 2021, a different team studied isotopes in tooth enamel from sites across Ukraine to understand the diet and range of ancient people. Those scientists concluded that only a small subset of people that lived in Scythian times were leading heavily nomadic lifestyles.
Even if only a few of these ancient warriors used human skin for their quivers, the work substantiates one of Herodotus’ more metal claims about the Scythians. Whether any of the rumored clothing sewn from scalps will ever be recovered is another matter.
A Staggering Excavation Has Rewritten the Fall of the Roman Empire
Tim Newcomb
Tue, December 19, 2023
This ‘Backwater’ Roman Town Outlived the Empire
Isaac Schultz
Wed, December 20, 2023
Leather samples, including human skin, from Scythian sites in Ukraine.
Scythians in modern-day Ukraine made leather out of human skin, a team of researchers has determined, likely as a macabre trophy item. The discovery affirms a claim by the ancient Greek historian Herodotus, who wrote extensively on the Scythian way of life.
In their work, the researchers use paleoproteomics to establish the sources of leather found on 14 different Scythian sites in southern Ukraine. The manifold sources—sheep, goat, cattle, horse, and yes, human—suggest that the equestrian steppe groups had a sophisticated knowledge of leatherworking. The team’s research was published last week in PLOS One.
Their weapon of choice on foot was the battle-ax, Herodotus added, and archaeological evidence suggests that the Scythians adored their horses. As the researchers noted, Herodotus detailed stories of Scythians drinking the blood of the defeated, using severed heads as a bargaining token for booty, and sewing together scalps to make clothing. Importantly for this line of research, Herodotus also said that “Many too take off the skin, nails and all, from their dead enemies’ right hands, and make coverings for their quivers.”
A silver bowl and golden cone from Scythian burials depicting leather garments.
The fur samples were identified as red fox and animals in the cat and squirrel families. The team could not get a taxonomic ID on 26% of the samples they identified, but the majority of the identified samples were likely goat (C. hircus.) The runner-up was sheep leather (~19%), while the other leather sources were roughly evenly represented in the samples. Two of the leather samples were from horse, and two—probably the reason you’re here—were human skin.
Scrutiny of the human leather made the team conclude that the skin bits were crafted on the top parts of their respective quivers; the rest of the quivers were made from animal leather. But even the animal leather quivers used a combination of different skins in their creation; the team posits that “each archer made their own quiver using the materials available at the moment.”
Scythians’ prowess on battlefields didn’t get in the way of a good time: the British Museum notes that various Greek authors documented a heavy drinking culture among the Scythians, and Herodotus even detailed a sort of ancient hot box (until now I didn’t know the word ‘weed’ shows up on the British Museum website).
New research continues to reshape the modern image of Scythians. They were much more than fearsome nomadic warriors. In 2021, a different team studied isotopes in tooth enamel from sites across Ukraine to understand the diet and range of ancient people. Those scientists concluded that only a small subset of people that lived in Scythian times were leading heavily nomadic lifestyles.
Even if only a few of these ancient warriors used human skin for their quivers, the work substantiates one of Herodotus’ more metal claims about the Scythians. Whether any of the rumored clothing sewn from scalps will ever be recovered is another matter.
A Staggering Excavation Has Rewritten the Fall of the Roman Empire
Tim Newcomb
Tue, December 19, 2023
This ‘Backwater’ Roman Town Outlived the Empire
Silvia Otte - Getty Images
A 13-year archeological excavation has shown that what was once believed a backwater town for the Roman Empire lasted far longer than originally believed.
Interamna Lirenas was a thriving town well into the 3rd century AD.
A geophysical survey has allowed researchers to build a highly detailed image of the town’s layout, with an impressive list of urban features.
Interamna Lirenas has turned out to be far more than a “backwater town” of the Roman Empire. According to a published study in Roman Urbanism in Italy, this central Italian town thrived well beyond previous belief, using its impressive urban features and forward-thinking design to stave off the effects of the empire’s collapse well into the 3rd century AD.
“We started with a site so unpromising that no one had ever tried to excavate it,” Alessandro Launaro, the study’s author and Interamna Lirenas Project lead at the University of Cambridge’s Classics Faculty, said in a statement. “That’s very rare in Italy.”
The team was astonished by what they found. From a roofed theater and market locations to warehouses and a river port, the discovery tossed aside assumptions previously held about the area and the decline of Roman Italy. It turns out that Interamna Lirenas survived for around 300 years longer than previously believed, and was a flourishing town to boot.
“There was nothing on the surface, no visible evidence of buildings, just bits of broken pottery,” Launaro said. “But what we discovered wasn’t a backwater, far from it. We found a thriving town adapting to every challenge thrown at it for 900 years.”
The team of archaeologists used magnetic and ground-penetrating radar to survey roughly 60 acres of mostly open fields. They then launched a series of targeted excavations to unearth the history. “We’re not saying that this town was special, it’s far more exciting than that,” Launaro sadi. “We think many other average Roman towns in Italy were just as resilient. It’s just that archaeologists have only recently begun to apply the right techniques and approaches to see this.”
The team believes that the proof is in the pottery. By focusing on common ware pottery used for cooking—and not the imported pottery that often shows evidence of high-status living—the team could better map the location and dates of citizen movement in the region. This evidence showed that instead of the town’s size peaking in the late 2nd or early 1st centuries BC, as previously believed, the town staved off decline until the later part of the 3rd century AD.
“Based on the relative lack of imported pottery,” Launaro said, “archeologists have assumed that Interamna Lirenas was a declining backwater. We now know that wasn’t the case.” Instead of favoring imported pottery, the town—which was likely home to about 2,000 residents—was busy making their own way.
Thanks to a found inscription, researchers also believe that the town was likely visited by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, likely because Intermana Lirenas was part of a regional urban network and ideally situated between a river and major road.
“This town continually played its cards right,” Launaro said, “it was always forging relations with communities between Rome and southern Italy while thriving as a trading hub.” Of course, the River Liri may have helped in that department—the town may have served as a river port. Archeologists also found evidence of warehouse measuring 131 feet by 39 feet, which was likely used to hold goods for widespread trade. There was also a temple and bath complex—one of three in the town—near the port.
“River ports didn’t just need warehouses,” Launaro said. “People spent a lot of time working and resting in the vicinity, so they needed all kinds of amenities, just like the ones we found here.”
Interamna Lirenas wasn’t just a port, though. Archaeologists also found a roofed theater, roughly 147 feet by 85 feet in size and large enough to seat 1,500 visitors. “The fact that this town went for a roofed theater, such a refined building, does not fit with a backwater in decline,” Launaro said. “This theater was a major status symbol. It displayed the town’s wealth, power, and ambition.”
The theater was in a state of growth, not decline. The team found evidence of a wealthy donor backing what was likely an improvement to the structure. And combined with other evidence, that shows that the theater was in full use throughout the life of the town.
Three bath complexes—with evidence of continued use and upkeep beyond Roman Italy’s decline—and housing that showed no signs of zoning or separation by social status further contributed to the town’s apparently thriving status. Throughout the 60 acres of their survey, the team identified 19 courtyard buildings that they believe could have been markets, guild houses, warehouses, or apartments. The archaeologists believe they found a sheep and cattle market, which would have been key to the region’s thriving wool trade.
As there was no layer of ash or evidence of a violent end to the town, Launaro believes that it was eventually abandoned as residents grew fearful of marauding armies. The end of Interamna Lirenas wasn’t as sudden or as soon as previously believed, which has now opened a new world of understanding.
A 13-year archeological excavation has shown that what was once believed a backwater town for the Roman Empire lasted far longer than originally believed.
Interamna Lirenas was a thriving town well into the 3rd century AD.
A geophysical survey has allowed researchers to build a highly detailed image of the town’s layout, with an impressive list of urban features.
Interamna Lirenas has turned out to be far more than a “backwater town” of the Roman Empire. According to a published study in Roman Urbanism in Italy, this central Italian town thrived well beyond previous belief, using its impressive urban features and forward-thinking design to stave off the effects of the empire’s collapse well into the 3rd century AD.
“We started with a site so unpromising that no one had ever tried to excavate it,” Alessandro Launaro, the study’s author and Interamna Lirenas Project lead at the University of Cambridge’s Classics Faculty, said in a statement. “That’s very rare in Italy.”
The team was astonished by what they found. From a roofed theater and market locations to warehouses and a river port, the discovery tossed aside assumptions previously held about the area and the decline of Roman Italy. It turns out that Interamna Lirenas survived for around 300 years longer than previously believed, and was a flourishing town to boot.
“There was nothing on the surface, no visible evidence of buildings, just bits of broken pottery,” Launaro said. “But what we discovered wasn’t a backwater, far from it. We found a thriving town adapting to every challenge thrown at it for 900 years.”
The team of archaeologists used magnetic and ground-penetrating radar to survey roughly 60 acres of mostly open fields. They then launched a series of targeted excavations to unearth the history. “We’re not saying that this town was special, it’s far more exciting than that,” Launaro sadi. “We think many other average Roman towns in Italy were just as resilient. It’s just that archaeologists have only recently begun to apply the right techniques and approaches to see this.”
The team believes that the proof is in the pottery. By focusing on common ware pottery used for cooking—and not the imported pottery that often shows evidence of high-status living—the team could better map the location and dates of citizen movement in the region. This evidence showed that instead of the town’s size peaking in the late 2nd or early 1st centuries BC, as previously believed, the town staved off decline until the later part of the 3rd century AD.
“Based on the relative lack of imported pottery,” Launaro said, “archeologists have assumed that Interamna Lirenas was a declining backwater. We now know that wasn’t the case.” Instead of favoring imported pottery, the town—which was likely home to about 2,000 residents—was busy making their own way.
Thanks to a found inscription, researchers also believe that the town was likely visited by Julius Caesar in 46 BC, likely because Intermana Lirenas was part of a regional urban network and ideally situated between a river and major road.
“This town continually played its cards right,” Launaro said, “it was always forging relations with communities between Rome and southern Italy while thriving as a trading hub.” Of course, the River Liri may have helped in that department—the town may have served as a river port. Archeologists also found evidence of warehouse measuring 131 feet by 39 feet, which was likely used to hold goods for widespread trade. There was also a temple and bath complex—one of three in the town—near the port.
“River ports didn’t just need warehouses,” Launaro said. “People spent a lot of time working and resting in the vicinity, so they needed all kinds of amenities, just like the ones we found here.”
Interamna Lirenas wasn’t just a port, though. Archaeologists also found a roofed theater, roughly 147 feet by 85 feet in size and large enough to seat 1,500 visitors. “The fact that this town went for a roofed theater, such a refined building, does not fit with a backwater in decline,” Launaro said. “This theater was a major status symbol. It displayed the town’s wealth, power, and ambition.”
The theater was in a state of growth, not decline. The team found evidence of a wealthy donor backing what was likely an improvement to the structure. And combined with other evidence, that shows that the theater was in full use throughout the life of the town.
Three bath complexes—with evidence of continued use and upkeep beyond Roman Italy’s decline—and housing that showed no signs of zoning or separation by social status further contributed to the town’s apparently thriving status. Throughout the 60 acres of their survey, the team identified 19 courtyard buildings that they believe could have been markets, guild houses, warehouses, or apartments. The archaeologists believe they found a sheep and cattle market, which would have been key to the region’s thriving wool trade.
As there was no layer of ash or evidence of a violent end to the town, Launaro believes that it was eventually abandoned as residents grew fearful of marauding armies. The end of Interamna Lirenas wasn’t as sudden or as soon as previously believed, which has now opened a new world of understanding.
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