New study reveals what skin temperature tells us about human comfort

University of Nottingham

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New research has shown that the skin temperature on specific areas of the body is a strong indicator for how hot, cold or comfortable people feel. These findings could inform the design of wearable technology and smarter, more intuitive building climate control systems. 

A new study by experts from the University of Nottingham’s Faculty of Engineering shows that skin temperature, particularly at the face and hands, is closely tied to how comfortable or uncomfortable a person feels. Their findings have been published in the journal Energy and Built Environment.

Research in this area has been scattered and inconsistent, but this new study unites findings from 172 different studies since 2000, offering the most comprehensive analysis to date on the link between skin temperature and thermal sensation.

The researchers identified areas on the body that are not only highly sensitive to temperature changes but also easy to monitor, making them especially useful for real-world applications. 

The researchers also found that local cooling - such as on the back or chest - can significantly improve comfort, while local heating has much less impact. This distinction has important implications for building climate control and personalised comfort technologies.

The study also highlights key demographic differences. Older adults, for example, tend to be less sensitive to warmth, potentially putting them at higher risk of overheating. Gender-related variations were also found, many studies report that women are more temperature sensitive across different environments, though findings are not always consistent. Climate background matters too - people from warmer regions respond to temperature differently than those from cooler ones, suggesting a need for more tailored approaches to thermal comfort.

Associate Professor John Calautit from the Faculty of Engineering said: “Skin temperature tells us a great deal about whether people feel too hot, too cold, or comfortable indoors. By bringing together research from around the world, we’ve shown how this knowledge can help design safer, healthier and more sustainable spaces. Looking ahead, we see a future where smarter building technologies use this physiological data to automatically deliver comfortable, energy-efficient environments with minimal input from occupants.”

 

The Nottingham team have also carried out feasibility research into using video cameras combined with deep learning to be able to predict people’s comfort levels. This research offers a foundation for developing integrated, multi-parameter approaches to support more energy-efficient and intelligent built environments.

With the rise of AI, researchers are increasingly using machine learning to predict comfort levels from physiological signals such as skin temperature, reducing reliance on subjective surveys. This is especially useful for groups who cannot reliably express their comfort needs for example, elderly individuals, young children or people with dementia. 

Dr Calautit continues: “This study lays the groundwork for smarter, more inclusive, and preventative approaches to managing thermal environments, helping reduce health risks and improve comfort for all.”

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Journal

Energy and Built Environment

DOI

10.1016/j.enbenv.2024.03.002 

Method of Research

Literature review

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Exploring the role of skin temperature in thermal sensation and thermal comfort: A comprehensive review

Article Publication Date

21-Aug-2025

 

Enhancing hydrogen production using modified ilmenite oxygen carriers

The iron-substituted calcium-titanate phase achieved in modified ilmenite improves carbon dioxide capture, hydrogen output, and energy recovery

Institute of Science Tokyo

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Researchers from Science Tokyo developed a new modified ilmenite-based oxygen carrier that effectively improves the rate and yields of hydrogen production in chemical looping systems.

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Credit: Institute of Science Tokyo

Potassium- and calcium-modified ilmenite oxygen carriers, developed by Institute of Science Tokyo, significantly improve hydrogen yields and redox reaction efficiency in chemical looping systems. The chemical modification of ilmenite results in the formation of a calcium titanate phase with iron substitution. This advancement enhances the oxide ion diffusion, accelerates hydrogen production, and also enables a polygeneration system for simultaneous hydrogen production, carbon dioxide capture, and power generation—paving the way to scalable, carbon-neutral energy systems.

Hydrogen is often known as the clean fuel because when it burns, it doesn’t release carbon dioxide (CO2), unlike other fuels. However, producing clean hydrogen without carbon emissions is quite challenging. One promising solution is chemical looping hydrogen production, an advanced energy conversion system that allows simultaneous capture of CO2, hydrogen production, and power generation using circulating oxygen carriers. However, finding efficient and scalable oxygen carriers with high performance in chemical looping has remained a challenge until now.

To address this, a group of researchers led by Professor Junichiro Otomo, along with researcher Dr. Zhuang Sun from the Department of Transdisciplinary Science and Engineering, Institute of Science Tokyo (Science Tokyo), Japan, developed a modified oxygen carrier that could dramatically improve hydrogen production and chemical looping outcomes. Their findings were made available online in the journal Applied Energy on July 04, 2025, and will be published in Volume 398 on November 15, 2025.

Chemical looping systems typically involve three interconnected reactors:  a fuel reactor that converts carbon monoxide (CO) to CO2, a steam reactor for hydrogen formation, and an air reactor for power generation. These reactors continuously circulate metal oxides (oxygen carriers) which drive redox reactions without direct combustion, allowing efficient CO₂ isolation and sustainable hydrogen production. Ilmenite is a natural mineral-based oxygen carrier that shows promise in chemical looping for hydrogen production. However, it often suffers from sluggish kinetics and poor hydrogen yields, making it less ideal for industrial-scale use.

To overcome this, the researchers modified the structure of ilmenite by adding potassium (K) and calcium (Ca) into its structure using a solid-state synthesis method. “We chose Ca and K ions for modifying ilmenite,” explains Otomo. “Since both are major components of biomass ash, this could facilitate better integration with renewable fuels.”

Briefly, the researchers first treated the natural ilmenite to remove impurities. The treated ilmenite was blended with specific amounts of calcium carbonate and potassium carbonate in a ball mill and calcined at high temperatures (900 °C and 1,300 °C) to form K-modified, Ca-modified, and K-Ca co-modified ilmenites. This modification introduced a new phase called calcium titanate with iron substitution within the structure.

“This iron-doped calcium titanate phase plays a critical role in accelerating the redox reactions in hydrogen production because the iron-doped calcium titanate is an ionic and electronic conductor,” notes Otomo. “By promoting the diffusion of oxide ions, we achieved a much higher reaction rate and hydrogen yield compared to conventional ilmenite-based carriers.”

In effect, this research marks a significant milestone in material science and clean energy. The new oxygen carriers are not only scalable but also cost-effective. Particularly, the optimized K-Ca co-modified ilmenite dramatically improved the efficiency by 5.5% in a polygeneration process. It reduced the CO consumption by 57% while boosting the hydrogen production by ∼440%—all within just one-third the size of a full-scale reactor. Furthermore, this new oxygen carrier is expected to have widespread applications in polygeneration systems for clean energy generation.

Looking ahead, the team aims to develop lower-temperature synthesis methods for cost-effective scaling. “A major step forward would be in July 2025, when a demonstration project led by Osaka Gas Co., Ltd. and JFE Engineering Corporation, with support from the Japan Carbon Frontier Organization, is expected to begin,” remarks Otomo. This project will use the newly developed material to simultaneously generate hydrogen, electricity, and CO₂ from biomass and liquid waste.

Additionally, Science Tokyo’s Green Transformation Initiative (Science Tokyo GXI) is also supporting the effort by expanding its experimental facilities. A demonstration experiment with a large-scale fluidized bed reactor is in progress at the university to refine the technology for practical settings. Building upon further collaborations, the team hopes to accelerate polygeneration technologies for a sustainable future.

 

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About Institute of Science Tokyo (Science Tokyo)
Institute of Science Tokyo (Science Tokyo) was established on October 1, 2024, following the merger between Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU) and Tokyo Institute of Technology (Tokyo Tech), with the mission of “Advancing science and human wellbeing to create value for and with society.”

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Journal

Applied Energy

DOI

10.1016/j.apenergy.2025.126362 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Potassium and calcium-modified ilmenites for improved reactivity and hydrogen yield in chemical looping

Article Publication Date

15-Nov-2025

CARNIVORE RITES!

Animal protein not linked to higher mortality risk, study finds

McMaster University

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Hamilton, ON, Aug. 22, 2025–Eating animal-sourced protein foods is not linked to a higher risk of death and may even offer protective benefits against cancer-related mortality, new research finds.  

 

The study, published in Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism, analyzed data from nearly 16,000 adults aged 19 and older using the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHAMES III).

 

Researchers examined how much animal and plant protein people typically consume and whether those patterns were associated with their risk of dying from heart disease, cancer or any cause. 

 

They found no increased risk of death associated with higher intake of animal protein. In fact, the data showed a modest but significant reduction in cancer-related mortality among those who ate more animal protein. 

 

“There’s a lot of confusion around protein – how much to eat, what kind and what it means for long-term health. This study adds clarity, which is important for anyone trying to make informed, evidence-based decisions about what they eat,” explains Stuart Phillips, Professor and Chair of the Department of Kinesiology at McMaster University, who supervised the research. 

 

To ensure reliable results, the team employed advanced statistical methods, including the National Cancer Institute (NCI) method and multivariate Markov Chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) modelling, to estimate long-term dietary intake and minimize measurement error. 

 

“It was imperative that our analysis used the most rigorous, gold standard methods to assess usual intake and mortality risk. These methods allowed us to account for fluctuations in daily protein intake and provide a more accurate picture of long-term eating habits,” says Phillips. 

 

The researchers found no associations between total protein, animal protein or plant protein and risk of death from any cause, cardiovascular disease, or cancer. When both plant and animal protein were included in the analysis, the results remained consistent, suggesting that plant protein has a minimal impact on cancer mortality, while animal protein may offer a small protective effect.

 

Observational studies like this one cannot prove cause and effect; however, they are valuable for identifying patterns and associations in large populations. Combined with decades of clinical trial evidence, the findings support the inclusion of animal proteins as part of a healthy dietary pattern. 

 

“When both observational data like this and clinical research are considered, it’s clear both animal and plant protein foods promote health and longevity,” says lead researcher Yanni Papanikolaou, MPH, president, Nutritional Strategies.

 

This research was funded by the National Cattlemen’s Beef Association (NCBA), a contractor to the Beef Checkoff. NCBA was not involved in the study design, data collection and analysis or publication of the findings.  

 

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Journal

Applied Physiology Nutrition and Metabolism

DOI

10.1139/apnm-2023-0594 

Article Title

Animal and plant protein usual intakes are not adversely associated with all-cause, cardiovascular disease-, or cancer-related mortality risk: an NHANES III analysis

COI Statement

YP, as President of Nutritional Strategies, provides food, nutrition, and regulatory affairs consulting services for food and beverage companies and food-related associations. VLF, as Senior Vice-President of Nutrition Impact, provides food and nutrition consulting services for food and beverage companies. VLF also conducts analyses of NHANES data for members of the food industry. SMP reports grants or research contracts from the US National Dairy Council, Canadian Institutes for Health Research, Dairy Farmers of Canada, Nestle Health Sciences, Cargill, National Science and Engineering Research Council, Friesland Campina, and the US NIH during the conduct of the study; personal fees from Nestle Health Sciences, Nutricia, Optimal Nutrition and non-financial support from Enhanced Recovery, outside the submitted work. SMP has patents licensed to Exerkine but reports no financial gains from patents or related work.

 

Satellite insights into eutrophication trends on the Qinghai–Tibet plateau

Journal of Remote Sensing

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Schematic diagram of key environmental factors driving changes in chlorophyll-a (Chla) concentration in lakes, including large livestock, sheep, fertilizer, population (POP), nitrogen deposition, wind speed (WIN), temperature (TEM), precipitation (PRE), and pressure (PRS).

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Credit: Journal of Remote Sensing

This research investigates chlorophyll-a (Chla) variations in lakes across the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), a region facing rapid warming. Using Landsat satellite data from 1986 to 2023, the study explores how climate change and human activities, such as grazing and fertilizer use, affect lake water quality. The analysis of 1,069 lakes reveals significant changes in Chla concentrations, indicating increasing eutrophication, particularly in smaller and shallower lakes. The study forecasts future Chla trends until 2100, offering valuable insights for water management in this ecologically sensitive region.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau (QTP), known for its rapid warming, is experiencing significant impacts on its lakes due to both climate change and human activities. Chlorophyll-a (Chla), a key indicator of lake health, serves as a proxy for eutrophication. This study leverages long-term satellite data to assess Chla levels in over 1,000 lakes, analyzing the relationship between Chla and environmental factors like nitrogen deposition and livestock. The QTP's extreme conditions and limited field data make satellite imagery an essential tool for understanding lake changes, filling gaps in traditional monitoring methods.

A research team led by scientists from the Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, published a study (DOI: 10.34133/remotesensing.0689) on June 24, 2025, in Journal of Remote Sensing that investigates long-term changes in chlorophyll-a levels across 1,069 lakes on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau. Using satellite images from the Landsat series processed through Google Earth Engine, the researchers reconstructed lake eutrophication trends from 1986 to 2023 and predicted future changes through 2100. Their results provide a robust scientific foundation for managing alpine lake ecosystems under climate and land-use pressures.

The study analyzed 1,069 lakes on the QTP from 1986 to 2023 using Landsat data to estimate Chla concentrations. It found significant increases in Chla in 281 lakes and decreases in 166 lakes. Smaller and shallower lakes, which are more vulnerable to environmental changes, showed higher Chla concentrations, signaling worsening eutrophication. The study identified key environmental factors affecting Chla levels, including large livestock, sheep, fertilizer use, and nitrogen deposition. Using a general linear model, the researchers forecasted future Chla levels, predicting a rise in most lakes by 2100 due to increased human activities. However, some lakes with higher ecological resilience are expected to withstand these pressures better. These findings underscore the need for targeted water management strategies to mitigate eutrophication and preserve lake health.

Professor Kaishan Song, an expert in lake ecosystems, stated, "This study emphasizes the importance of satellite technology for monitoring the health of remote lakes. As climate change accelerates and human pressures mount, understanding how these factors influence lake ecosystems is critical. The projected increases in Chla concentrations highlight the need for sustainable practices and more effective water quality management to protect these vital water resources for the future."

The researchers used Landsat satellite data from 1986 to 2023, processed through the Google Earth Engine platform, to estimate Chla concentrations in 1,069 QTP lakes. Environmental factors like nitrogen deposition, livestock density, and weather conditions were integrated to examine their correlation with Chla. Variance decomposition and general linear model regression quantified each factor's contribution. Future Chla concentrations were predicted using data from the Inter-Sectoral Impact Model Intercomparison Project (ISIMIP) for the years 2024 to 2100, accounting for anticipated environmental changes and human activities.

This study sets the stage for future water management strategies in the QTP. The findings stress the importance of reducing anthropogenic pressures, such as livestock grazing and fertilizer use, in lakes facing high environmental stress. By using improved satellite monitoring, researchers can refine predictions and enhance conservation efforts. The study's forecasts provide crucial information for developing sustainable water quality management practices, ensuring the resilience of lake ecosystems in the face of climate change and increasing human influence.

###

References

DOI

10.34133/remotesensing.0689

Original Source URL

https://spj.science.org/doi/10.34133/remotesensing.0689

Funding information

This research was financially supported by the Natural Science Foundation of China (U2243230 and 42171374); the Natural Science Foundation of Jilin Province, China (YDZJ202401474ZYTS); and the Young Scientist Group Project of Northeast Institute of Geography and Agroecology, Chinese Academy of Sciences (2023QNXZ01).

About Journal of Remote Sensing

The Journal of Remote Sensing, an online-only Open Access journal published in association with AIR-CAS, promotes the theory, science, and technology of remote sensing, as well as interdisciplinary research within earth and information science.

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Journal

Journal of Remote Sensing

DOI

10.34133/remotesensing.0689 

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Historical and Future Variation of Lacustrine Chlorophyll-a and Driving Factors on the Qinghai–Tibet Plateau

 

Is composting worth it? The calculation is complicated

A new UConn study explores the cost, effort, and impact of composting programs

University of Connecticut

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UConn researcher, Jackson Somers.

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Credit: Jason Sheldon/UConn Photo

When you throw out food waste, even though it’s organic material, it doesn’t just harmlessly decompose at the landfill. This process releases methane. In a 20-year period, methane is 80-85 times more potent as a greenhouse gas than carbon dioxide.

This has led some municipalities to begin implementing composting programs as a way of reducing methane emissions.

When food waste is decomposing in a landfill, it rapidly uses up any available pockets of oxygen between the trash around it. This is an “aerobic” process, meaning it occurs in the presence of oxygen and produces carbon dioxide. But when that oxygen is used up, the waste begins decomposing through a longer “anerobic” process – meaning it occurs without oxygen – that produces methane.

Composting, on the other hand, is a fully aerobic process, and the resulting compost can be used as an agricultural fertilizer.

Decomposition in a landfill is an anerobic process, as food waste is jammed in with everything else at the dump, without room for oxygen to get in.

Jackson Somers, assistant professor of agricultural and resource economics in the College of Agriculture, Health and Natural Resources (CAHNR), investigated participation rates and the economics behind residential composting programs. Somers published his findings in the Journal of Environmental Economics and Management.

Somers found that on average, there is a 2.3-pound reduction in the amount of organic waste going into landfills per household per week when a city implements a composting program, using Austin, Texas as an example. This represents only about 30% of the average weekly food waste generated by a U.S. household.

Unlike some larger cities, like San Franciso, most composting programs, including Austin’s, do not have any way to enforce compliance.

“As individuals, we produce a lot of food waste, and it’s something we should be cognizant of. From there, you should compost if you want to compost,” Somers says. “I think, inherently, we don’t want to be wasteful. But for some people it’s just a high burden of effort.”

Somers found that, from a purely economic perspective, the cost to run a compost program outstrips the social cost of avoiding putting that methane into the atmosphere, especially with these low participation rates.

The “social cost of carbon” is a number economists use to estimate the financial cost of each additional ton of carbon dioxide emitted into the atmosphere. The current figure is pegged at $51. The median cost to expand composting programs is $478 per ton of CO2 avoided.

Large cities, which would be the largest methane emitters from organic waste, generally have methane capture technologies working at their landfills, some of which generate electricity or natural gas, while preventing methane from entering the atmosphere.

“With current programs, given the infrastructure we have – these programs are really expensive for the savings we see,” Somers says.

However, this doesn’t necessarily mean composting programs are never worth the investment.

As existing landfills fill up, it will be a major future expense to create new ones. So, creating a composting facility now may make economic and environmental sense in the long run.

Researchers are also constantly reevaluating the social cost of carbon. Generally, that cost increases as we learn more about the myriad impacts of greenhouse gas emissions and as these impacts accumulate.

“As we learn more about our impact, composting programs may become cheaper from an environmental sense,” Somers says.

There may be other benefits for specific communities as well, such as reducing pests like rats that thrive on unsecured organic waste, especially in large cities like New York or Philadelphia.

“Keeping rats and other pests out of neighborhoods certainly goes into the calculus too,” Somers says. “How many people get sick from rats? How much do we dislike seeing rats running around on the streets? It’s important to factor in other impacts, not just environmental.”

Somers emphasizes that questions about what to do with organic waste will differ from community to community.

In Connecticut, there are some curbside programs in cities. Others have drop-off programs where people collect food waste and bring it to a centralized location in places.

“A one-size-fits-all solution is not the answer,” Somers says. “The solution in northwestern Connecticut is very different from the solution in Stamford or Hartford – and the solutions for Stamford and Hartford are also going to be different because demographically they’re quite different.”

Somers says that while his paper focused on single-family residential composting programs, there may be a larger impact on commercial waste from businesses like grocery stores.

“That’s where I think you can see real savings,” Somers says. “I think that’s something we should consider more than we do.”

 

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Journal

Journal of Environmental Economics and Management

DOI

10.1016/j.jeem.2025.103174 

Article Title

Household landfill diversion and the impact on methane emissions