It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Friday, May 19, 2023
How good is the data for tracking countries' agricultural greenhouse gas emissions?
Burlington, VT, USA, 19 May 2023 – Limited accuracy and transparency of national greenhouse gas emission inventories are curbing climate action, especially in the agriculture and land use sector.
Inconsistent and inadequate reporting by low-and-middle-income countries (LMICs), uncertainties in reported data, and a lack of robust activity data and locally specific emission factors have been found to curb effective policy action. GHG inventories are the foundation for accounting and tracking progress toward mitigation goals and decision-makers must have access to reliable, legible, and consistent data to make informed decisions.
A review of UNFCCC country-reported agricultural greenhouse gas (GHG) data and three independent global databases provides an in-depth analysis and inventory of reporting issues that affect national GHG inventories. Inventories were characterized by quality and consistency aiming to enable better use of data and tracking progress toward climate change mitigation goals.
Results show a gap in LMIC reporting in the UNFCCC data, highlighting a need for more uniform reporting methodologies, especially to manage food security and climate change adaptation and mitigation. Policy and decision-makers should therefore use independent, non-UNFCCC emissions databases to triangulate UNFCCC data for emissions-related decisions.
Lead author Kyle Dittmer explained that “other analyses show a general lack of quality in UNFCCC reporting. UNFCCC-reported data should be the most official, but it’s often the most incomplete and is sometimes illegible. We identified specific areas to improve consistency.” Some examples of what affected the quality of countries’ reports included mistakes and a lack of reporting numbers, inconsistent global warming potentials, and legibility.
The authors give recommendations for how inventories can be enhanced to drive progress toward goals instead of limiting action. Dittmer also said that “developed nations must intensify their technical and financial support to LMICs to create and maintain institutional capacity, tools, and training for preparing accurate and transparent national GHG inventories.”
Developed nations cannot continue to fall short of their climate-finance pledges. Ambitious financial and technical support for LMICs is needed to fulfill the commitment wealthy nations made to the Paris Agreement so that decision-makers can accurately track progress, set mitigation priorities, and manage emissions.
Dittmer K.M., Wollenberg E., Cohen M., Egler C. 2023. How good is the data for tracking countries' agricultural greenhouse gas emissions? Making use of multiple national greenhouse gas inventories. Frontiers in Sustainable Food Systems - Climate-Smart Food Systems, 7. doi: 10.3389/fsufs.2023.1156822
IMAGE: MOST METHANE EMISSIONS COME FROM THE AGRICULTURE, ENERGY, AND WASTE SECTORS, AND ONLY ABOUT 13% OF CUMULATIVE METHANE EMISSIONS ARE COVERED BY POLICY.view more
CREDIT: ONE EARTH/OLCZAK ET AL.
Methane, a greenhouse gas known to do about 80 times more damage to the atmosphere than carbon dioxide over a 20-year period, is often overlooked by policymakers and governments. In a review publishing in the journal One Earth on May 19, researchers analyzed the coverage, stringency, and real-world impact of current global methane emissions policies for the first time. They found that only 13% of emissions are currently covered by direct mitigation policies.
In order to limit climate warming to 1.5 degrees Celsius in accordance with the Paris Agreement, global methane emissions need to be cut by at least 40%–45%, according to the 2021 Global Methane Assessment—a feat that the authors assert can be accomplished if governments adopt stricter methane policies and measure emissions more accurately.
“The need for comprehensive and targeted methane mitigation strategies is highlighted by a growing body of literature. But methane emissions are increasing faster than at any time since the 1980s,” write environmental policy experts Maria Olczak, Andris Piebalgs, and Paul Balcombe of the Queen Mary University of London/Environmental Defense Fund Europe, the European University Institute’s Florence School of Regulation, and the Queen Mary University of London, respectively.
To determine how effective current methane emissions restrictions are, the team reviewed 281 policies across the highest methane-producing sectors, including energy, waste, and agriculture. They found that the number of methane policies varies dramatically between regions and that the policies currently in place are not stringent enough, largely because they were created based on inaccurate data. Often, the methane emissions estimates used by policymakers come from underreported greenhouse gas estimates, datasets that are not open to the public, or figures that vary substantially depending on the method used to measure the amount of methane.
“A consistent approach for accurate identification, quantification, and verification of methane emissions sources alongside greater policy coverage and stringency must be put into place to realize the significant methane emissions reduction opportunities,” write the researchers.
Mitigating man-made methane emissions is one of the cheapest ways to slow down climate change and improve air quality, according to the Global Methane Assessment. However, the authors argue, progress will depend on a global, unified effort to limit methane emissions, and quick action needs to be taken on both a national and a regional level in order to meet climate goals.
“Effective methane mitigation requires stronger social support and political consensus. Yet, methane reduction is still perceived as a choice rather than a necessity complementing the ongoing decarbonization efforts focused largely on CO2,” the researchers write. “The upcoming climate conference COP28 in Dubai (United Arab Emirates), when collective progress towards the Paris Agreement objectives will be assessed for the first time, offers an enormous opportunity for change.”
One Earth (@OneEarth_CP), published by Cell Press, is a monthly journal that features papers from the fields of natural, social, and applied sciences. One Earth is the home for high-quality research that seeks to understand and address today’s environmental Grand Challenges, publishing across the spectrum of environmental change and sustainability science. A sister journal to Cell, Chem, and Joule, One Earth aspires to break down barriers between disciplines and stimulate the cross-pollination of ideas with a platform that unites communities, fosters dialogue, and encourages transformative research. Visit http://www.cell.com/one-earth. To receive Cell Press media alerts, contact press@cell.com.
New research from Queen Mary University of London shows that only around 13% of global methane emissions are regulated, despite methane emissions causing at least 25% of current global warming.
The global review, published on 19 May in One Earth, also found that little is known about the effectiveness of the policies that exist, with potentially unrepresentative methane emission estimations used rather than actual measurements. Inaccurate estimations can also mean the issue is taken less seriously by decision-makers by masking its severity.
The researchers argue that the lack of regulation and clarity into their impact must urgently be addressed if we are to meet our global climate targets. The review suggests a consistent approach worldwide with robust quantification and reporting could unlock new opportunities to drastically reduce global warming levels.
To meet the Paris Agreement 1.5°C objective, man-made methane emissions should be reduced by at least 40-45% by 2030, compared to the 2020 levels. Methane mitigation is not only a cost-effective strategy to reduce global warming but could also improve the air quality. Today methane emissions are increasing faster than at any time since the 1980s.
This global review of methane policies is the first to systematically look at all major man-made emission sources, agriculture, energy and waste. Researchers focused on 281 policies worldwide, 255 of them currently in force, that aim to monitor and reduce methane emissions examining the geographical coverage, strength and effectiveness of the policies.
90% of identified national policies have been adopted in three regions: North America (39%), Europe (30%) and Asia Pacific (21%). Globally, the research shows there has been a gradual increase in methane policies since 1974. But fossil methane policies, e.g., targeting emissions from coal, oil and gas sectors tend to be less stringent than those targeting biogenic methane sources, especially in the waste sector.
In jurisdictions with fossil methane policies in place, further mitigation opportunities include emissions further along the supply chain e.g. emissions from Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) carrier ships, which were investigated by a team of QMUL researchers led by Dr Balcombe.
One of the main challenges to measuring methane emissions is accurately identifying and quantifying sources. Developing and using technologies such as satellites to monitor methane emissions can help policymakers with measurement, verification, compliance and detection of super-emitters. Introducing policies with greater policy coverage, mitigation solutions including for major sources, and measurable objectives could lead to a significant methane emissions reduction.
Maria Olczak, lead researcher on this project from Queen Mary University of London, said: “Methane reduction is still perceived as a choice rather than a necessary step alongside CO2 reduction to combat global warming. And with so many different sources, there needs to be stronger social support and the political will to act.
“Our review highlights the value of setting policies that are predictable and clear for the industry. They will aid effective investment decisions aligned with the long-term climate mitigation goals, including the decrease in emission intensity and in production across developed and developing economies.”
Dr Paul Balcombe, study author and Senior Lecturer in Chemical Engineering at Queen Mary, said: “It’s shocking to see that most methane emissions aren’t regulated when they contribute heavily to global warming today, although accurately monitoring emissions is not easy. Our chances of reaching global climate targets are slim if this goes unchecked.
“The good news is that there’s an enormous opportunity to limit warming in the short term if we act fast to get on top of methane emissions. We urgently need tighter regulation on better monitoring of methane and concrete actions towards reduction measures.”
Andris Piebalgs, study author, part-time Professor at the Florence School of Regulation and a former EU Commissioner for Energy, said: “Over the last few years, we have seen growing attention to methane thanks to multilateral initiatives such as the International Methane Emissions Observatory and the Global Methane Pledge. The European Union and the US EPA are now working to finalise ambitious regulations targeting methane emissions in the energy sector. I hope that the upcoming COP28 and the first Global Stocktake will make the policymakers across the world realise that methane mitigation is an effective way to enhance their climate commitments.”
The never-ending demand for carbon-rich fuels to drive the economy keeps adding more and more carbon dioxide (CO2) to the atmosphere. While efforts are being made to reduce CO2 emissions, that alone cannot counter the adverse effects of the gas already present in the atmosphere. So, scientists have come up with innovative ways to use existing atmospheric CO2 by transforming it into useful chemicals such as formic acid (HCOOH) and methanol. A popular method for carrying out such conversions is to use visible light for driving the photoreduction of CO2 via photocatalysts.
In a recent breakthrough published in Angewandte Chemie, International Edition on May 8, 2023, a team of researchers led by Prof. Kazuhiko Maeda of Tokyo Institute of Technology developed a tin-based metal–organic framework (MOF) that can enable selective photoreduction of CO2. They reported a novel tin (Sn)-based MOF called KGF-10, with the formula [SnII2(H3ttc)2.MeOH]n (H3ttc: trithiocyanuric acid and MeOH: methanol). It successfully reduced CO2 into HCOOH in the presence of visible light. "Most high-performance CO2 reduction photocatalysts driven by visible light rely on rare, precious metals as principal components. Furthermore, integrating the functions of light absorption and catalysis into a single molecular unit made up of abundant metals has remained a long-standing challenge. Hence, Sn was the ideal candidate as it can overcome both challenges," explains Prof. Maeda.
MOFs, which bring the best of both metals and organic materials, are being explored as the more sustainable alternative to conventional rare-earth metal-based photocatalysts. Sn, known for its ability to act as both a catalyst and absorber during a photocatalytic reaction, could be a promising candidate for MOF-based photocatalysts. While MOFs composed of zirconium, iron, and lead have been widely explored, not much is known about Sn-based MOFs.
For synthesizing the Sn-based MOF KGF-10, the researchers used H3ttc, MeOH, and tin chloride as the starting materials and chose 1,3-dimethyl-2-phenyl-2,3-dihydro-1H-benzo[d]imidazole as the electron donor and the hydrogen source. The prepared KGF-10 was then subjected to several analysis techniques. They revealed that the material showed moderate CO2 adsorption ability, had a bandgap of 2.5 eV, and absorbed visible light wavelengths.
Once aware of the physical and chemical properties of the new material, scientists used it for catalyzing the reduction of CO2 in the presence of visible light. They found that KGF-10 successfully reduced CO2 into formate (HCOO-) with 99% selectivity without needing any additional photosensitizer or catalyst. It also exhibited a record-high apparent quantum yield— the ratio of the number of electrons involved in the reaction to the total number of incident photons—of 9.8% at 400 nm. Furthermore, structural analysis carried out during the reactions revealed that KGF-10 underwent structural changes while facilitating photocatalytic reduction.
This study presented for the first time a tin-based high-performance, precious-metal free, and single-component photocatalyst for visible-light-driven reduction of CO2 to formate. The excellent properties of KGF-10 demonstrated by the team would open new avenues for its application as a photocatalyst in reactions such as solar energy-driven CO2 reduction. "The results of our study are a testimony to the fact that MOFs can be a platform for creating outstanding photocatalytic functions, usually unattainable with molecular metal complexes, using non-toxic, inexpensive, and Earth-abundant metals," concludes Prof. Maeda.
IMAGE: FLINDERS UNIVERSITY CHEMISTS HAVE DISCOVERED A NEW WAY TO MAKE ‘GREEN’ POLYMERS FROM LOW-COST BUILDING BLOCKS WITH JUST A SMALL AMOUNT OF ELECTRICITY.view more
CREDIT: FLINDERS UNIVERSITY
Chemistry researchers at Flinders University have ‘struck gold’ by discovering a new way to make ‘green’ polymers from low-cost building blocks with just a small amount of electricity.
The reaction is fast and occurs at room temperature. No hazardous chemical initiators are required – just electricity, with many potential uses including in gold mining and recycling e-waste, an interdisciplinary team reveal in an article just published in the prestigious Journal of the American Chemical Society.
While hundreds of millions of tonnes of plastic is produced every year, with up to half used for single purposes, the Flinders University research group is working on more sustainable options. The power used in production is a contributor to pollution and global warming.
“The use of electricity to produce new materials is an emerging field of research that opens many doors to new chemicals and polymers that can be produced in a more sustainable way,” says co-author Dr Thomas Nicholls, an expert in using electrochemistry to make valuable molecules.
The process begins by adding an electron to the basic building block or monomer. After ‘electrocuting’ the monomer, it reacts with another building block in a chain reaction which leads to the formation of a polymer.
First-author and PhD candidate Jasmine Pople says: “Our method to electrochemically produce polymers provides new materials that are highly functional and environmentally friendly.”
“The use of electricity to make valuable molecules is expanding rapidly due to its versatility. Additionally, it may generate less waste than traditional chemical syntheses and it can be powered with renewable energy.”
The key polymer made by the team has sulfur-sulfur bonds in its backbone. These sulfur groups can do useful things like bind precious metals such as gold. The team demonstrated that the key polymer could remove 97% of gold from solutions of relevance to mining and e-waste recycling.
The sulfur-sulfur bonds can also be broken and reformed. This interesting property enabled the team to discover conditions to convert the polymer back to its original building block. This is an important advance in recycling.
Typically, when common plastics are recycled, they are simply heated and reshaped into a new product. This process can cause degradation and down-cycling (conversion to a less valuable material), leading to eventual disposal in landfill.
In contrast, the polymers made in the latest research from Flinders University scientists can be chemically converted back into its constituent building blocks in high yield – meaning that building block can be used again to make new polymers.
The team also carried out quantum mechanical calculations to understand the details of how the reaction works. The findings were surprising and fortuitous.
“The polymerisation has a clever self-correcting mechanism: whenever the wrong reaction occurs, it reverses until the correct reaction proceeds, ensuring a uniform polymer,” says Research Associate in computational and physical chemistry Dr Le Nhan Pham
Future applications of this class of materials include environmental remediation, gold mining, and use of the polymer as an anti-microbial agent.
This work is funded by an ARC Discovery grant ‘Unusual Trisulfide Chemistry’, led by Future Fellow and Matthew Flinders Professor of Chemistry Justin Chalker and Associate Professor Zhongfan Jia in collaboration with Dr Tom Hasell at the University of Liverpool (DP230100587).
Researchers at the University of Helsinki have discovered a molecular epigenetic mechanism, common to several species throughout the tree of life, which mediates long-term cellular responses to particulate matter such as air pollution.
The epigenetic response is common to many types of particulate exposure, and found in many organisms.
“Our research offers a promising step towards a more comprehensive understanding of the impacts of particulate matter, including viruses, on biological systems and the environment, while contributing to the development of faster and more reliable toxicity tests which are closer to planetary health models,” summarizes Professor Dario Greco from the University of Helsinki.
Predicting the long-term effects of nanomaterial exposure
It is already well known that exposure to environmental factors contributes to disease susceptibility by impacting the epigenome.
“We discovered a novel epigenetic mechanism underlying the response to nanoparticulate exposure in multiple organisms. Our discovery offers a novel way to study long-term responses of cells, tissues, and entire organisms to many particulate exposures,” says Greco.
The possibility that nanoparticles could somehow epigenetically re-program biological systems provides an additional dimension to assess their impact on health and the environment.
“In this sense, our results highlight the need to correctly identify chronic effects of nanoparticles’ intentional and unintentional exposure, with possibly important epidemiological implications,” explains Greco.
One step closer to Planetary Health
The findings of Greco’s research group revealed that a wide range of species across the tree of life respond to particulate exposure by activating molecular regulations mediated by an ancestral epigenetic mechanism that is also present in non-specialized cells and simpler organisms.
According to Greco, this is an important step towards closing the scientific dichotomy, which thus far has focused on either human or environmental implications of the engineered nanomaterials production. Greco’s new discovery embraces the interconnectedness and interdependence of the health of humans, animals, and the environment, towards a planetary health model.
Assessing biological responses to nanomaterials requires faster and more reliable methods
Both the size and composition of nanoparticles give them unique properties, distinct from other chemicals.
Currently, toxicologists must test each nanomaterial individually to evaluate its health and environmental implications, but the available tests are species-specific and focus mainly on acute responses. With the increasingly widespread use of – and exposure to – nanoparticles in everyday life, faster and more reliable methods are needed to assess their potential toxicity across multiple species, and to determine the longer-term consequences.
“Our research helps to fill this gap in the field, paving the way for a new generation of tests that can simultaneously investigate the impact of nanoparticles across species, contributing to the reduction of animal experimentation and streamlining the process to multiple engineered nanomaterials with disparate physicochemical characteristics,” Greco highlights.
IMAGE: A NEW PAPER REPRESENTS AN INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION COMBINING QUANTUM COMPUTING WITH AI FOR MOLECULAR GENERATION.view more
CREDIT: INSILICO MEDICINE
Insilico Medicine (“Insilico”), a clinical stage generative artificial intelligence (AI)-driven drug discovery company, today announced that it combined two rapidly developing technologies, quantum computing and generative AI, to explore lead candidate discovery in drug development and successfully demonstrated the potential advantages of quantum generative adversarial networks in generative chemistry.
The study, published May 13 in the American Chemical Society’s Journal of Chemical Information and Modeling, a leading journal in computational modeling, was led by Insilico’s Taiwan and UAE centers which focus on pioneering and constructing breakthrough methods and engines with rapidly developing technologies – including generative AI and quantum computing – to accelerate drug discovery and development. The research was supported by University of Toronto Acceleration Consortium director Alán Aspuru-Guzik, PhD, and scientists from the Hon Hai (Foxconn) Research Institute.
“This international collaboration was a very fun project,” said Alán Aspuru-Guzik, director of the Acceleration Consortium and professor of computer science and chemistry at the University of Toronto. “It sets the stage for further developments in AI as it meets drug discovery. This is a global collaboration where Foxconn, Insilico, Zapata Computing, and University of Toronto are working together.”
Generative Adversarial Networks (GANs) are one of the most successful generative models in drug discovery and design and have shown remarkable results for generating data that mimics a data distribution in different tasks. The classic GAN model consists of a generator and a discriminator. The generator takes random noises as input and tries to imitate the data distribution, and the discriminator tries to distinguish between the fake and real samples. A GAN is trained until the discriminator cannot distinguish the generated data from the real data.
In this paper, researchers explored the quantum advantage in small molecule drug discovery by substituting each part of MolGAN, an implicit GAN for small molecular graphs, with a variational quantum circuit (VQC), step by step, including as the noise generator, generator with the patch method, and quantum discriminator, comparing its performance with the classical counterpart.
The study not only demonstrated that the trained quantum GANs can generate training-set-like molecules by using the VQC as the noise generator, but that the quantum generator outperforms the classical GAN in the drug properties of generated compounds and the goal-directed benchmark. In addition, the study showed that the quantum discriminator of GAN with only tens of learnable parameters can generate valid molecules and outperforms the classical counterpart with tens of thousands parameters in terms of generated molecule properties and KL-divergence score.
“Quantum computing is recognized as the next technology breakthrough which will make a great impact, and the pharmaceutical industry is believed to be among the first wave of industries benefiting from the advancement,” said Jimmy Yen-Chu Lin, PhD, GM of Insilico Medicine Taiwan and corresponding author of the paper. “This paper demonstrates Insilico’s first footprint in quantum computing with AI in molecular generation, underscoring our vision in the field.”
Building on these findings, Insilico scientists plan to integrate the hybrid quantum GAN model into Chemistry42, the Company’s proprietary small molecule generation engine, to further accelerate and improve its AI-driven drug discovery and development process.
Insilico was one of the first to use GANs in de novo molecular design, and published the first paper in this field in 2016. The Company has delivered 11 preclinical candidates by GAN-based generative AI models and its lead program has been validated in Phase I clinical trials.
“I am proud of the positive results our quantum computing team has achieved through their efforts and innovation,” said Alex Zhavoronkov, PhD, founder and CEO of Insilico Medicine. “I believe this is the first small step in our journey. We are currently working on a breakthrough experiment with a real quantum computer for chemistry and look forward to sharing Insilico's best practices with industry and academia.”
The study includes scientists from Insilico Medicine, Foxconn, Zapata Computing, and University of Toronto.
Insilico Medicine, a clinical-stage end-to-end artificial intelligence (AI)-driven drug discovery company, connects biology, chemistry, and clinical trials analysis using next-generation AI systems. The company has developed AI platforms that utilize deep generative models, reinforcement learning, transformers, and other modern machine learning techniques to discover novel targets and to design novel molecular structures with desired properties. Insilico Medicine delivers breakthrough solutions to discover and develop innovative drugs for cancer, fibrosis, immunity, central nervous system (CNS), and aging-related diseases. For more information, visit www.insilico.com
Study reveals the persistent effects of corruption on trust and voting
A study by Bocconi University, Milan, professors reveals that trust in democratic institutions is still lower than average among the italians who voted for the first time during the clean hands investigation, and support for populist parties is stronger
The short-term effects of corruption are often obvious. Numerous sources, both in Russia and in the West, consider the military's endemic corruption one of the main reasons of the logistical problems, very low troop morale, and massive casualties of the Red Army in Ukraine. In late 2016, a corruption scandal cost the first woman elected head of state in an Asian country, South Korea's Park Geun-hye, impeachment.
We can well imagine that the ongoing “Qatargate,” a political scandal raised by the suspicion that some members of the European Parliament have been bribed by the governments of Qatar, Morocco and Mauritania, may have immediate, distressing effects on the involved politicians, if they are found guilty. But what about the long-term damage to European institutions?
The Italian Mani Pulite (Clean Hands) investigation which, between 1992 and 1994, revealed widespread corruption among Italian politicians, highlights that political corruption also has a long-term scarring effect on trust in democratic institutions and on voters’ behavior. This effect differs according to one’s age cohort, with first-time voters at the time of corruption revelation still being affected more than 20 years later.
A recently published study by Arnstein Aassve (Professor of Demography at Bocconi Department of Social and Political Sciences), Gianmarco Daniele, and Marco Le Moglie (both fellows of of Bocconi reserach unit CLEAN - Crime: Law and Economic Analysis research) reminds us that 23% of national MPs and a staggering 75% of MPs from the then ruling Christian Democrat and Socialist parties were charged with corruption in those years and the 1994 electoral campaign was centered on this topic. Political corruption, completely missing on Italian TV news up to then, became the most salient topic both in TV news and newspapers (with almost 90% of the front pages covering the scandal in 1993).
Using data from Trustlab, an effort coordinated by the OECD to collect nationally representative data of trust and political beliefs in a comparative setting, the scholars find that Italian first-time voters in 1994 were 9% more likely to vote for populist parties in 2018 (according to their self-reported behavior) and recorded lower institutional trust (i.e. trust in parliament, government and civil servants). Their trust in bodies not immediately related to the Clean Hands scandal (police, media, and financial institutions) and their social trust (trust towards other individuals) were unaffected.
The effect is stronger for less educated individuals and for people more exposed to TV news in the areas most affected by the corruption scandal. Furthermore, the effect is driven by the 2018 vote for the populist right-wing party Lega, while vote for the left-wing populist party Movimento 5 Stelle is substantially unaffected.
“Our study highlights the relevance of an informational political shock when malleability of beliefs and attitudes is higher, both because of the age of the first-time voters and because eligibility to vote entails an unprecedented exposure to politics and political news,” says Arnstein Aassve, a Full Professor of Demography at Bocconi University.
First-time voters at the time of the scandal also report harsher attitudes towards immigrants and refugees in 2018, “suggesting,” the scholars write, “a fascinating spill-over effect, whereby the detrimental effects of corruption might not be limited to trust and voting, but they might extend to policies supported by populist parties.”
About The Study: This survey study found that although there has been substantial policy attention around incentivizing COVID-19 vaccination, fewer than 1 in 10 vaccinated individuals in a nationally representative sample of U.S. adults reported receiving an incentive. Most vaccinated respondents reported that an incentive did not make a difference in their decision-making to get the COVID-19 vaccine.
Authors: Laura J. Faherty, M.D., M.P.H., M.S.H.P., of the RAND Corporation in Boston, is the corresponding author.
Editor’s Note: Please see the article for additional information, including other authors, author contributions and affiliations, conflict of interest and financial disclosures, and funding and support.
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