Europe's carbon sinks under pressure: Unprecedented biomass loss in Europe's forests since 2018

Peer-Reviewed Publication

Technical University of Munich (TUM)

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Katja Kowalski and Cornelius Senf

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Credit: Sebastian Kissel / TUM

• First large-scale assessment of biomass loss across Europe's forests
• Unprecedented increase since 2018 driven by storms, drought, and bark beetles
• Particularly severe biomass losses in Central European forests

Using satellite data, researchers at the Technical University of Munich (TUM) have identified an unprecedented loss of aboveground biomass in Europe’s forests since 2018. Forests in Central Europe, which have been heavily affected by drought and bark beetle outbreaks, have been particularly impacted. The study also shows that even small increases in disturbed forest area can release large amounts of carbon into the atmosphere. The findings raise concerns about the European Union's ability to meet its climate goals.

Unlike previous studies that focused solely on changes in tree cover, this study provides the first Europe-wide assessment of changes in forest biomass. To accomplish this, the research team combined satellite data on tree cover change with information on the amount of biomass stored in forests. Their analysis reveals a clear shift: since 2018, biomass losses have increased sharply, leading to substantially greater losses of carbon stored in forests.

This increase in biomass loss coincided with a major rise in bark beetle outbreaks linked to worsening drought conditions. Since 2018, Europe has lost, on average, 46 percent more biomass per year per hectare forest area than during the period from 1985 to 2017. While both timber harvesting and natural disturbances contribute to biomass losses, the researchers attribute the sharp increase since 2018 primarily to climate change-related events. “The changes since 2018 are difficult to explain without climate change. As droughts become more frequent and severe, trees are weakened and bark beetles benefit from increasingly favorable conditions. We expect such events to become more frequent in the future, so they need to be taken into greater account in forest management planning, especially if we intend to rely on Europe’s forests as carbon sinks,” says Katja Kowalski, a researcher at the Professorship of Earth Observation for Ecosystem Management at TUM and lead author of the study.

Hotspots of carbon emissions

The amount of carbon released depends heavily on the region in which forest disturbances occur. Central European forests contain particularly high amounts of biomass, but they are also especially vulnerable to drought, bark beetles, and storms. In Germany, which has the largest standing timber stock in the European Union, disturbed forests release an average of about 125 tons of biomass or roughly 230 tons of CO₂ equivalents per hectare each year. Before 2018, that figure was approximately 170 tons of CO₂ equivalents per hectare. Mediterranean and Scandinavian forests contain less biomass on average due to their ecological characteristics and growing conditions. As a result, disturbances in these forests release less carbon per hectare. In Central Europe, rising disturbance rates thus have particularly severe consequences for the carbon sink capacity of Europe’s forests.

According to the researchers, 18 percent of all biomass losses in Europe between 1985 and 2023 were caused by natural disturbances such as insect outbreaks, storms, and wildfires. Between 1985 and 2017, natural disturbances accounted for 17 percent of biomass losses. From 2018 to 2023, that share had risen to 23 percent.

The much larger share, 82 percent (1985-2023), resulted from forest management activities. “Unlike natural disturbances, we can influence these human interventions,” says Cornelius Senf, Professor of Earth Observation for Ecosystem Management at TUM. “In addition, biomass removed from forests does not usually enter the atmosphere as CO₂ immediately. Instead, it is often used as a raw material for buildings or furniture.” While timber harvesting increased steadily over the study period, the increase was moderate.

Implications for EU climate targets

The researchers also view their findings in the context of European climate policy. The European Union has set a target of increasing annual carbon removals from forests to 310 megatons of CO₂ equivalents by 2030 in order to offset emissions that are difficult to avoid in other sectors. Yet the performance of Europe’s forests as carbon sinks is already declining. According to recent studies, Europe’s forests stored about 72 percent less CO₂ equivalents during 2020-2022 than they did between 2010 and 2014. The TUM study suggests that this trend could become even more pronounced.

To counteract this development, Cornelius Senf advocates for adapted forest management practices: “Forests are certainly capable of recovering from disturbances. There is reason to be optimistic, because most disturbed areas will eventually regain their role as carbon sinks. Our task now is to restore their capacity to store carbon and to adapt forests to future conditions.”

Further Information:

• The research was supported through the European Space Agency’s Climate Change Initiative as part of the RECCAP-2 project, as well as by the EU-funded ForestPaths project. Both projects use satellite data to quantify changes in Europe’s forests and their role as carbon sinks.
• Cornelius Senf is a member of the TUM School of Life Sciences and the Center for Alpine Forest Management at TUM.
• In 2026, he was appointed by NASA and the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to the Landsat Science Team, an interdisciplinary group of international experts. For more than 50 years, the Landsat program has provided a continuous record of satellite observations, serving as a foundation for research on climate change, land use, ecosystems, agriculture, and urbanization.

Katja Kowalski and Cornelius Senf

Credit

Sebastian Kissel / TUM

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Journal

Nature Geoscience

DOI

10.1038/s41561-026-02032-y 

Method of Research

Data/statistical analysis

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Publication Date

5-Aug-2026

 

Well-worn wins: Wild capuchin monkeys prefer stones with a proven track record of cracking nuts

New study reveals that visible traces of past tool use can outweigh material properties when primates select tools

Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology

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This capuchin monkey cracks open a cashew nut using the "experimental stones". It achieves this by placing the nut on a soft anvil and striking it with a hard hammerstone.

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Credit: © Tiago Falótico

To the point

• Tool selection strategies: Wild bearded capuchin monkeys match the hardness of stones to their intended function. When given a free choice, they prefer to use softer stones as anvils and harder stones as hammers.
• Trusting the evidence: Monkeys prefer "used" stones that show visible signs of previous successful nut-cracking over raw ones, even when the material properties are less than ideal.
• Indirect social learning: The findings suggest that capuchins can learn from the lasting environmental traces left by others without ever having observed the event of tool use itself.
• Implications for human origins: The study provides a fresh perspective on interpreting early hominin archaeological sites, where the accumulation of used stones may have attracted repeated visits and reuse.

A new study provides experimental evidence that wild capuchin monkeys use more than just physical cues when selecting stone tools; they also rely on visible signs that a stone has previously been used for this purpose. Researchers from the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology and the University of São Paulo investigated how nut-cracking capuchin monkeys choose between stones of different hardness and appearance, examining whether evidence of prior use, as indicated by percussive damage, can override the influence of a stone's intrinsic material properties.

The team studied two wild populations of bearded capuchin monkeys (Sapajus libidinosus) in Brazil and presented them with standardised stones in three experimental tasks. For each task, the monkeys could choose between raw, unmodified stones and stones bearing visible signs of previous nut-cracking activity.

Matching materials to the task

In the first task, when all the stones were unused, the monkeys consistently selected different materials for different purposes: softer stones for anvils and harder stones for hammerstones. This suggests that capuchins have an understanding of how material properties relate to mechanical function.

"What surprised us was how consistently the monkeys distinguished between stone types based purely on hardness, with no prior visible use," says Johanna Henke-von der Malsburg, the study’s first author and a former postdoctoral researcher at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology who is now a postdoctoral researcher at the Research Institute for Farm Animal Biology. "This suggests that functional stone selection is not just a habit; it demonstrates genuine awareness of the physical requirements of the task."

When evidence of use takes over

In the second experiment, the monkeys were given a choice between an entirely unused nut-cracking site and one that already contained battered stones and broken nutshells. The monkeys showed a strong preference for the previously used site and, within it, continued to favour softer anvils and harder hammer stones, as well as stones that showed visible wear.

The third task pitted raw and used stones against each other directly. Here, the pattern shifted: for anvils, signs of previous use were favoured over material hardness, with monkeys preferring used stones even when they were not the mechanically optimal choice. However, no clear preference for hardness emerged for hammerstones once visible use entered the equation.

"This is a striking case where social information appears to override an individual's assessment of physical properties," explains Lydia Lunz, the study's senior author and a research group leader at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology. "The monkeys didn't need to see another individual crack a nut. The traces left behind — the damage to the stone — were enough to guide their decision. This is a subtle yet powerful form of social learning."

Learning from traces, not just demonstrations

The three experiments together demonstrate that social learning in wild capuchins does not always require the direct observation of another individual's behaviour. Instead, durable physical traces, such as battered stones and discarded nutshells, can transmit information about how and where a task has been successfully completed in the past.

This form of indirect social information may play a significant yet often overlooked role in transmitting and maintaining tool-use traditions across generations of primates. This allows behaviours to persist and spread even in the absence of direct teaching or imitation.

Rethinking the archaeological record

The findings may also provide archaeologists studying early hominin sites with new interpretive tools. Accumulations of modified stones at particular locations have traditionally been interpreted primarily in terms of the availability of raw materials or the practical demands of the task at hand. However, this study suggests an additional factor: the mere presence of visibly modified stones that had previously been used may have actively drawn early hominins back to specific places, encouraging the reuse of both the location and its available materials.

"If modern wild primates can be guided by the accumulated evidence of past tool use, this raises important questions about how early hominins may have related to their discarded tools and worked stones," says Lunz. "The archaeological landscape itself may have functioned as a kind of external memory, influencing where and how tool traditions emerged and persisted."

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Journal

Proceedings of the Royal Society B Biological Sciences

DOI

10.1098/rspb.2026.0416 

Article Title

Social cues on stone tools outweigh raw material properties in wild primate

Article Publication Date

5-Aug-2026

marxistshttps://www.marxists.org  › archive  › marx  › works  › 1876  › part-played-labour  › 

The Part Played by Labor in the Transition From Ape to Man

Works of Frederick Engels 1876 · Written: in May-June 1876; First published: in Die Neue Zeit 1895-06; Translated: from the German by Clemens Dutt; First..

 

Strong childhood friendships could be the antidote to lifelong social media harms, counsellor suggests

As the ban on social media for under-16s take effect in Australia, an education expert argues that teaching children friendship skills early may help with lasting protection against digital dangers

Taylor & Francis Group

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The key to protecting children from social media’s harmful effects may lie not in restrictions alone, but in equipping them with robust real-world friendship skills from an early age.

This is the argument put forward by counsellor and winner of global awards in education and business, a counsellor Madhavi Nawana Parker in her new book, The Friendship Blueprint, who says: “It’s urgent that we act now to nurture our children’s social intelligence and protect their future.”

As Australian legislation to ban social media access for children under 16 takes effect, educators are highlighting how early intervention in social and emotional learning could provide a crucial buffer against its well-documented risks to mental health and self-worth.

The importance of friendship

As the social media ban is enforced, Nawana Parker, who is CEO of Positive Minds Australia and has worked in Australian schools for almost three decades, suggests that restriction alone may not be sufficient.

Instead, Nawana Parker argues that children who develop strong face-to-face relationship skills are better equipped to navigate digital spaces healthily when they eventually gain access.

She suggests teaching children emotional regulation – the ability to notice, understand, and manage feelings – forms the foundation of both healthy friendships and responsible digital citizenship. This means that children who learn these skills early are less likely to base their identity and self-worth on online validation, and instead seek comfort and gain confidence from their friends.

“Delaying device use gives brain more time to develop social skills,” Nawana Parker explains.

“It is my belief, rooted deep in both research and lived experience, that our ability to connect with others is not just nice-to-have, but an essential ingredient for well-being, meaning, and success. In a world that can sometimes feel hurried, uncertain, or even a little lonely, the power of friendship is more important than ever.

“I’ve witnessed countless young people transform, finding confidence, self-awareness, and hope as they overcome loneliness and discover authentic connection.”

Relationship skills as the foundation

At the heart of Nawana Parker’s argument is that the skills needed to build and maintain friendships will not only help children be kinder to each other and navigate disagreements more peacefully, but will also improve their long-term self-worth.

Nawana Parker suggests there is a critical developmental window – even though emotional intelligence continues to develop well into adulthood, the foundations are laid in childhood through real-world social experiences.

The key skills she suggests children need to learn are self-awareness, communication skills, empathy and perspective taking, conflict resolution, inclusion and co-operation.

“Strong friendships depend on emotional intelligence, which includes self-awareness, self-regulation, empathy, and social skills,” Nawana Parker explains. “These competencies help children stay connected to friends, even during disagreements or challenging times.”

Research cited in the book demonstrates that peer relationships significantly influence children’s values, behaviour and sense of belonging. Children who miss out on these formative interactions may be particularly vulnerable when they later encounter the curated, often toxic environment of social media.

Nawana Parker asks: “Would you rather have 500 followers who scroll past your posts, or two friends who notice when you are unusually quiet? The answer reveals what we all know deep down: that authentic friendship is not measured in cursory clicks, but in genuine care.”

Emotional resilience

As well as providing children with connection and confidence, friendships can also teach children how to repair relationships when things go wrong, Nawana Parker explains.

Building and repairing friendships teaches children critical lifelong skills such as conflict resolution and empathy, and how to respectfully communicate differing opinions – key skills for the online world.

“How can adults help children avoid friendship roadblocks? At this age, emotions often override logic, making it hard to process social upsets calmly. Children need support to manage these challenges. Emotional intelligence and healthy boundaries develop over time.

“When handled with self-awareness, compassion, and respect, these moments help build communication, empathy, compromise, and trust,” she explains.

Nawana Parker suggests that the conflicts and disagreements in childhood help children to develop empathy, learn to self-regulate and refine their communication skills – foundations which will help to determine how they engage with digital platforms later in life.

“Going through everyday misunderstandings, occasionally feeling left out, and experiencing changes in friendship dynamics provide perfect opportunities (with our support and guidance) to develop these skills. While these experiences are all painful, and we certainly don’t want them to happen more than the joyful and mutually respectful interactions, early childhood is practice for the very real ups and downs of human relationships,” she explains.

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DOI

10.4324/9781003617570 

 

Pusan National University study finds climate-driven greening is reshaping East Asia's air pollution

Updating vegetation data with satellite observations reveals that climate-driven changes can significantly alter ozone and aerosol pollution

Pusan National University

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Satellite observations revealed major vegetation changes across East Asia between 2003 and 2024. By updating vegetation data in an atmospheric chemistry model, researchers found that climate-driven greening altered natural plant emissions, leading to changes in ozone and biogenic secondary organic aerosols. The air quality impacts varied across the region depending on the interaction between vegetation changes and nitrogen oxide availability, highlighting the importance of using up-to-date vegetation data in air quality models.

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Credit: Professor Hyo-Jung Lee and Research Professor Yu-Jin Jo from Pusan National University, Republic of Korea

The effects of climate change extend far beyond rising temperatures. As forests and other vegetation respond to a warming world, they also change the amount of biogenic emissions released into the atmosphere, influencing the formation of ozone (O3) and fine particulate pollution. Yet many atmospheric chemistry models still estimate these emissions using vegetation data from 2003, despite major ecological changes across East Asia over the past two decades.

A new study led by Professor Hyo-Jung Lee and Research Professor Yu-Jin Jo from Pusan National University, Republic of Korea, together with Dr. Younha Kim from the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Austria, and researchers from Pusan National University, shows that updating vegetation information with recent satellite observations can significantly change estimates of biogenic emissions and air pollution. This study was made available online on March 30, 2026, and was published in Volume 299 of the journal Environmental Research on June 15, 2026.

"Our results show that updating vegetation information alone can substantially change biogenic emissions, O₃, and biogenic secondary organic aerosols (BSOA)," says Prof. Lee.

Plants emit biogenic volatile organic compounds (BVOCs), including isoprene and monoterpenes, which undergo atmospheric reactions and contribute to the formation of ground-level O3 and BSOA. Because these emissions depend on the amount and type of vegetation, changes in forests and plant growth can directly influence air quality.

To investigate this effect, the researchers used the WRF-Chem atmospheric chemistry model coupled with the MEGAN biogenic emissions model. They replaced the model's default vegetation dataset from 2003 with satellite-derived vegetation observations from 2024 while using the same model configuration and meteorological conditions. This approach allowed the team to isolate the impact of updated vegetation data, specifically the effects of vegetation changes alone.

Satellite observations showed an overall increase in vegetation across East Asia, but the magnitude and direction of change varied spatially, with strong greening in parts of China and localized declines in Japan. These vegetation changes altered modeled O₃ and BSOA concentrations, with the largest increases occurring in suburban areas, where a balance between vegetation changes and NOₓ availability favored secondary pollutant formation. Urban areas showed smaller responses because vegetation changes were limited despite high NOₓ levels, whereas rural areas showed smaller responses because NOₓ levels remained low despite substantial vegetation changes.

"Our findings demonstrate that regularly updating vegetation datasets in biogenic emission modules can improve the accuracy of atmospheric chemistry models," says Prof. Lee.

The researchers say the results highlight the importance of keeping vegetation datasets up to date as climate change continues to reshape ecosystems across East Asia.

"This study highlights the importance of routinely updating vegetation datasets so that atmospheric chemistry models can more accurately represent changing ecosystems and their interactions with atmospheric chemistry," says Prof. Jo.

The researchers say incorporating current satellite observations into atmospheric chemistry models could improve operational air quality forecasting and provide more reliable scientific information for air quality management under changing environmental conditions. They note that the study focused on August 2024, when vegetation activity is highest, and that future work will examine additional seasons and longer time periods to better understand how changing vegetation will affect air quality in the years ahead.

 

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Reference
DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2026.124392

 

About Pusan National University
Pusan National University, located in Busan, South Korea, was founded in 1946 and is now the No. 1 national university of South Korea in research and educational competency. The multi-campus university also has other smaller campuses in Yangsan, Miryang, and Ami. The university prides itself on the principles of truth, freedom, and service and has approximately 30,000 students, 1,200 professors, and 750 faculty members. The university comprises 14 colleges (schools) and one independent division, with 103 departments in all.

Website: https://www.pusan.ac.kr/eng/Main.do

 

About Professor Hyo-Jung Lee
Professor Hyo-Jung Lee is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Atmospheric Science at Pusan National University, Republic of Korea. Her research focuses on atmospheric chemistry, air quality modeling, and biosphere–atmosphere interactions. Her group integrates atmospheric chemistry models, satellite observations, and field measurements to investigate air pollutant formation, long-range transport, and the impacts of climate and ecosystem changes on regional air quality.

Lab: mac.pusan.ac.kr

ORCID id: 0000-0003-3943-2671  

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Journal

Environmental Research

DOI

10.1016/j.envres.2026.124392 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Impacts of climate-driven vegetation changes on air quality over East Asia: Modulation of biogenic VOC emissions and secondary pollutants