INDIA
Imposing statue of Maharana Pratap at Udaipur airport.
Photo-credit: MMCF, Udaipur
June 17, 2026
By Raju Mansukhani
Marking 486 years of Maharana Pratap
“Zawar is the beginning of the Industrial Revolution,” said Dr Paul T Craddock, the Emeritus Researcher, Conservation and Scientific Research at The British Museum, London. He was referring to Zawar mines of south Rajasthan in India, and the real beginnings of chemical industry a thousand years ago! “It looks like they were taking a lab technique and slowly developing that into a viable industrial process. By the time we get to about a 1000 years ago, we have the first proper industrial unit,” he explained in an interview to The Hindu in Udaipur, published on 15 March 2019.
With 17 June 2026 marking the 486th anniversary of Maharana Pratap of Mewar, it is time to join the historical dots, unfolding fascinating new facts that bring together metallurgy and military history, regional and imperial politics on the same page. Maharana Pratap in the 16th century CE emerged as a Warrior-King of Mewar, defending his kingdom with its fort-cities and ancient temples, his hardy people, and the natural and mineral wealth which the Mughal Empire sought to capture.
Dr Craddock’s reports titled ‘Early Indian Metallurgy – The Production of Lead, Silver and Zinc through Three Millennia in North West India’ (with KTM Hedge, LK Gurjar and L. Willies) and ‘The production of lead, silver and zinc in ancient India’ (with IC Freestone, LK Gurjar, A Middleton, L Willies and KTM Hegde of MS Baroda University) are great starting points to delve deep into the mines of Mewar.
June 17, 2026
By Raju Mansukhani
Marking 486 years of Maharana Pratap
“Zawar is the beginning of the Industrial Revolution,” said Dr Paul T Craddock, the Emeritus Researcher, Conservation and Scientific Research at The British Museum, London. He was referring to Zawar mines of south Rajasthan in India, and the real beginnings of chemical industry a thousand years ago! “It looks like they were taking a lab technique and slowly developing that into a viable industrial process. By the time we get to about a 1000 years ago, we have the first proper industrial unit,” he explained in an interview to The Hindu in Udaipur, published on 15 March 2019.
With 17 June 2026 marking the 486th anniversary of Maharana Pratap of Mewar, it is time to join the historical dots, unfolding fascinating new facts that bring together metallurgy and military history, regional and imperial politics on the same page. Maharana Pratap in the 16th century CE emerged as a Warrior-King of Mewar, defending his kingdom with its fort-cities and ancient temples, his hardy people, and the natural and mineral wealth which the Mughal Empire sought to capture.
Dr Craddock’s reports titled ‘Early Indian Metallurgy – The Production of Lead, Silver and Zinc through Three Millennia in North West India’ (with KTM Hedge, LK Gurjar and L. Willies) and ‘The production of lead, silver and zinc in ancient India’ (with IC Freestone, LK Gurjar, A Middleton, L Willies and KTM Hegde of MS Baroda University) are great starting points to delve deep into the mines of Mewar.
Panoramic view of Zawar, its temples and mines.
Photo-credit: Early India Metallurgy report
“Our project began in the 1980s between Hindustan Zinc Ltd, the British Museum, the M. S. University of Baroda, and the Peak District Mining Museum, Derbyshire to investigate the remains of early zinc production at Zawar, which lies 45 kms south of Udaipur in the Aravalli hills of Rajasthan,” said the soft-spoken archaeo-metallurgist, adding “Hindustan Zinc had previously recognised that their two other lead/zinc mines in Rajasthan, Rajpura-Dariba near Chittor and Aampura-Agucha about 40 kms south of Ajmer were also potentially of great interest, and had obtained radiocarbon dates which showed that Dariba was exploited well over 2500 years ago. After the first season’s work it was realised that these other mines were not worked for zinc, and that even at Zawar lead and possibly silver were also exploited. The lead, silver and zinc ores occur together and their exploitation is an integrated story which could not be understood in isolation.”
HV Paliwal, one of the senior-most mining engineers of Hindustan Zinc played a major role in highlighting the significance of Zawar and heritage mines of Mewar since the 1960s. His 2011 monograph ‘Contribution of Mewar in the development of metal science’ is invaluable for its depth of reference material and the geographies covered. Along with HV Kharakwal and LK Gurjar, Paliwal kept the focus on the time-line of the ancient mines, providing archaeological, numismatic, literary and documentary evidence at every stage. In fact, Dr Craddock’s paid his tribute in ‘Early Indian Metallurgy’ by dedicating the report to HV Paliwal.
Harappa sites and Ahar
Negotiating the technical reports prepared by Dr Craddock and the legion of historians, archaeologists, and scholars it is clear that mining and metallurgy in India have considerable antiquity. It takes us back to the Harappan age, and closer to Udaipur, to Ahar. In the early second millennium BCE, evidence of copper smelting has been found at Ahar. Said Dr Craddock, “At Zawar, due to the different mineralisation and distinct formation, zinc smelting was developed here exclusively. The reports provide technical details of our archaeo-metallurgical work. It would suffice to say that in India by the 12th century CE, the production of zinc at Zawar was beginning on an industrial scale. It would seem that the mines at Zawar were always worked predominantly for zinc, with lead recovered as a byproduct. There is no evidence that silver was every produced, thus confirming Zawar as the earliest known zinc mine in the world. Although no occupation sites have been located at Zawar, it would seem likely that these mines were also controlled by the Mauryan Empire, and again after its collapse, production ceased. However, the story at Zawar was to be different from then on.”
“Our project began in the 1980s between Hindustan Zinc Ltd, the British Museum, the M. S. University of Baroda, and the Peak District Mining Museum, Derbyshire to investigate the remains of early zinc production at Zawar, which lies 45 kms south of Udaipur in the Aravalli hills of Rajasthan,” said the soft-spoken archaeo-metallurgist, adding “Hindustan Zinc had previously recognised that their two other lead/zinc mines in Rajasthan, Rajpura-Dariba near Chittor and Aampura-Agucha about 40 kms south of Ajmer were also potentially of great interest, and had obtained radiocarbon dates which showed that Dariba was exploited well over 2500 years ago. After the first season’s work it was realised that these other mines were not worked for zinc, and that even at Zawar lead and possibly silver were also exploited. The lead, silver and zinc ores occur together and their exploitation is an integrated story which could not be understood in isolation.”
HV Paliwal, one of the senior-most mining engineers of Hindustan Zinc played a major role in highlighting the significance of Zawar and heritage mines of Mewar since the 1960s. His 2011 monograph ‘Contribution of Mewar in the development of metal science’ is invaluable for its depth of reference material and the geographies covered. Along with HV Kharakwal and LK Gurjar, Paliwal kept the focus on the time-line of the ancient mines, providing archaeological, numismatic, literary and documentary evidence at every stage. In fact, Dr Craddock’s paid his tribute in ‘Early Indian Metallurgy’ by dedicating the report to HV Paliwal.
Harappa sites and Ahar
Negotiating the technical reports prepared by Dr Craddock and the legion of historians, archaeologists, and scholars it is clear that mining and metallurgy in India have considerable antiquity. It takes us back to the Harappan age, and closer to Udaipur, to Ahar. In the early second millennium BCE, evidence of copper smelting has been found at Ahar. Said Dr Craddock, “At Zawar, due to the different mineralisation and distinct formation, zinc smelting was developed here exclusively. The reports provide technical details of our archaeo-metallurgical work. It would suffice to say that in India by the 12th century CE, the production of zinc at Zawar was beginning on an industrial scale. It would seem that the mines at Zawar were always worked predominantly for zinc, with lead recovered as a byproduct. There is no evidence that silver was every produced, thus confirming Zawar as the earliest known zinc mine in the world. Although no occupation sites have been located at Zawar, it would seem likely that these mines were also controlled by the Mauryan Empire, and again after its collapse, production ceased. However, the story at Zawar was to be different from then on.”
What the Zawar zinc mines may have looked like.
Photo-credit: Early India Metallurgy report
By the 7th century CE, the mines were back in production, and by the 12th century CE zinc metal was being produced industrially. Already in the late 14th CE production was on a considerable scale, and perhaps it is not surprising that the first direct historic reference to Zawar dates from the 1380s CE when Rana Lakha of Mewar (period of reign 1382 – 1421 CE) was credited with founding the mines. Production continued on a major scale for about four centuries before ending during the wars and famine which plagued Rajasthan in the early 19th CE, and in the face of western competition. Ironically, the western technology was almost certainly derived from Zawar.
The remains excavated at Zawar are of the developed industrial process. Though Zawar cannot have been the only source of zinc in India (other sources probably in Kashmir and Afghanistan were also producing zinc), Zawar does seem to have been the major producer as nothing on that scale has been noted elsewhere. “A furnace block, could have produced between 20 to 50 kilograms of zinc per day, depending on the furnace type and on the retort capacity, and an overall production through five or six centuries of the order of 50,000 tonnes is estimated by us,” pointed out Dr Craddock.
Homage to Rana Pratap
The imposing statue of Maharana Pratap at the Udaipur airport (named after him) is a befitting tribute to one of the greatest Warrior-Kings of pre-modern India. The statue was unveiled on 30 June 2009 by the President of India Smt. Pratibha Devi Singh Patil in the august presence of the Rajasthan chief minister, senior officials and His late Highness Maharana Arvind Singh Mewar. The 15 feet-high statue adorns a 10-feet high pedestal and weighs almost 3 tonnes (3000 kilograms). Significantly it has been created using gun-metal, that is, copper with the alloys of zinc, tin and lead. In many ways, the statue represents the mineral wealth of Mewar.
By the 7th century CE, the mines were back in production, and by the 12th century CE zinc metal was being produced industrially. Already in the late 14th CE production was on a considerable scale, and perhaps it is not surprising that the first direct historic reference to Zawar dates from the 1380s CE when Rana Lakha of Mewar (period of reign 1382 – 1421 CE) was credited with founding the mines. Production continued on a major scale for about four centuries before ending during the wars and famine which plagued Rajasthan in the early 19th CE, and in the face of western competition. Ironically, the western technology was almost certainly derived from Zawar.
The remains excavated at Zawar are of the developed industrial process. Though Zawar cannot have been the only source of zinc in India (other sources probably in Kashmir and Afghanistan were also producing zinc), Zawar does seem to have been the major producer as nothing on that scale has been noted elsewhere. “A furnace block, could have produced between 20 to 50 kilograms of zinc per day, depending on the furnace type and on the retort capacity, and an overall production through five or six centuries of the order of 50,000 tonnes is estimated by us,” pointed out Dr Craddock.
Homage to Rana Pratap
The imposing statue of Maharana Pratap at the Udaipur airport (named after him) is a befitting tribute to one of the greatest Warrior-Kings of pre-modern India. The statue was unveiled on 30 June 2009 by the President of India Smt. Pratibha Devi Singh Patil in the august presence of the Rajasthan chief minister, senior officials and His late Highness Maharana Arvind Singh Mewar. The 15 feet-high statue adorns a 10-feet high pedestal and weighs almost 3 tonnes (3000 kilograms). Significantly it has been created using gun-metal, that is, copper with the alloys of zinc, tin and lead. In many ways, the statue represents the mineral wealth of Mewar.
Maharana Pratap statue unveiled by H.E President of India Smt. Pratibha Devi Singh Patil on 30 June 2009. Photo-credit: MMCF, Udaipur
“Rana Pratap is to be seen not just as a protector of Mewar but a custodian of its natural wealth,” said Dr Shri Krishna ‘Jugnu’, a renowned Sanskrit scholar-teacher and writer, whose roots lie in the region of which he is immensely proud. “The Kingdom had silver, zinc mines which had been yielding enormous revenues since the 12th century CE. The attention of Mughal armies was to first capture silver mines at Dariba. They were successful for a short while, and carted away the silver which was used to mint imperial coins. At Zawar, the Rana ensured that zinc mines were safe from Mughal clutches. He strategically used the geography of the area, support of the Bhil tribes and Meenas and kept the Mughal armies at bay, year after year,” explained Dr Shri Krishna in an interview with AIR Central English Features unit conducted by Basudha Banerji in 2020. The feature was aptly titled ‘Beyond Haldighati’.
No wonder that the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and later, the Mughals, were making frequent inroads into this region, laying siege to fort-cities like Chittaurgarh and Kumbhalgarh. Innumerable battles were fought, diplomatic alliances formed and broken to not just territorially extend the empires but to control lucrative land-to-coast trade routes, capture natural resources, and get a lion’s share of produce from fertile farm-lands and forests. From the depths of zinc and silver mines to the plains and foothills of Mewar, the Mughal Empire was invariably circling the Mewar territories, wanting to impose their rule on Mewar. Scholars like Dr Shri Krishna have gone beyond political and military history and highlighted why Mewar’s mineral wealth mattered to the Mughals. “Original works in Sanskrit are available in archives in Ajmer, Bikaner, Udaipur besides the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute which are shedding new light on these aspects of Mewar’s history,” he said.
Keeping legacies alive
“There is no denying the pioneering achievements of Maharana Pratap. Yet he is often seen in a unidimensional way. It is the battle of Haldighati, and his stance against the Mughal Empire, which remains in popular history and imagination,” said His late Highness Maharana Arvind Singh Mewar, whose family is directly descended from Maharana Pratap. “We have not given equal attention to other facets of this great leader’s life and times. His deep concern about the environment, agriculture and agricultural practices are domains which have not been given its due.”
Maharana Pratap Smarak Samiti in Udaipur is working towards the realization of several objectives of the Rana. “Ecology, environmental protection and afforestation are major objectives for us,” said Shriji Huzur Dr Lakshyaraj Singh Mewar who is the 77th Custodian of the House of Mewar and chairman and managing trustee of Maharana of Mewar Charitable Foundation. He is working on sustainable development initiatives in heritage cities like Gogunda, Chavand where the legacy of Rana Pratap continues to remain alive.
End note: Dr Paul T Craddock was honoured on 10 March 2019 with the Colonel James Tod Award by the Maharana of Mewar Charitable Foundation at The City Palace, Udaipur, for his outstanding contribution to the understanding of the spirit and values of Mewar.
“Rana Pratap is to be seen not just as a protector of Mewar but a custodian of its natural wealth,” said Dr Shri Krishna ‘Jugnu’, a renowned Sanskrit scholar-teacher and writer, whose roots lie in the region of which he is immensely proud. “The Kingdom had silver, zinc mines which had been yielding enormous revenues since the 12th century CE. The attention of Mughal armies was to first capture silver mines at Dariba. They were successful for a short while, and carted away the silver which was used to mint imperial coins. At Zawar, the Rana ensured that zinc mines were safe from Mughal clutches. He strategically used the geography of the area, support of the Bhil tribes and Meenas and kept the Mughal armies at bay, year after year,” explained Dr Shri Krishna in an interview with AIR Central English Features unit conducted by Basudha Banerji in 2020. The feature was aptly titled ‘Beyond Haldighati’.
No wonder that the armies of the Delhi Sultanate and later, the Mughals, were making frequent inroads into this region, laying siege to fort-cities like Chittaurgarh and Kumbhalgarh. Innumerable battles were fought, diplomatic alliances formed and broken to not just territorially extend the empires but to control lucrative land-to-coast trade routes, capture natural resources, and get a lion’s share of produce from fertile farm-lands and forests. From the depths of zinc and silver mines to the plains and foothills of Mewar, the Mughal Empire was invariably circling the Mewar territories, wanting to impose their rule on Mewar. Scholars like Dr Shri Krishna have gone beyond political and military history and highlighted why Mewar’s mineral wealth mattered to the Mughals. “Original works in Sanskrit are available in archives in Ajmer, Bikaner, Udaipur besides the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute which are shedding new light on these aspects of Mewar’s history,” he said.
Keeping legacies alive
“There is no denying the pioneering achievements of Maharana Pratap. Yet he is often seen in a unidimensional way. It is the battle of Haldighati, and his stance against the Mughal Empire, which remains in popular history and imagination,” said His late Highness Maharana Arvind Singh Mewar, whose family is directly descended from Maharana Pratap. “We have not given equal attention to other facets of this great leader’s life and times. His deep concern about the environment, agriculture and agricultural practices are domains which have not been given its due.”
Maharana Pratap Smarak Samiti in Udaipur is working towards the realization of several objectives of the Rana. “Ecology, environmental protection and afforestation are major objectives for us,” said Shriji Huzur Dr Lakshyaraj Singh Mewar who is the 77th Custodian of the House of Mewar and chairman and managing trustee of Maharana of Mewar Charitable Foundation. He is working on sustainable development initiatives in heritage cities like Gogunda, Chavand where the legacy of Rana Pratap continues to remain alive.
End note: Dr Paul T Craddock was honoured on 10 March 2019 with the Colonel James Tod Award by the Maharana of Mewar Charitable Foundation at The City Palace, Udaipur, for his outstanding contribution to the understanding of the spirit and values of Mewar.
Dr Paul T Craddock bestowed with the Col James Tod Award in 2019 by Maharana of Mewar Charitable Foundation in Udaipur. Photo-credit: MMCF, Udaipur.
About Raju Mansukhani
Raju Mansukhani, based in New Delhi, is a researcher-writer on history and heritage issues; a media consultant with leading museums, non-profits, universities and corporates in India and overseas. Contributing regular columns, book reviews and features in the media he has drawn attention of the new generations to critical issues and personalities of Indian and Asian history. Over the last three decades he has authored books on diverse subjects including the media, palace architecture, sports and contemporary history. Through in-depth documentaries, he has profiled leading Asian public figures highlighting their research and publications.
View all posts by Raju Mansukhani →
About Raju Mansukhani
Raju Mansukhani, based in New Delhi, is a researcher-writer on history and heritage issues; a media consultant with leading museums, non-profits, universities and corporates in India and overseas. Contributing regular columns, book reviews and features in the media he has drawn attention of the new generations to critical issues and personalities of Indian and Asian history. Over the last three decades he has authored books on diverse subjects including the media, palace architecture, sports and contemporary history. Through in-depth documentaries, he has profiled leading Asian public figures highlighting their research and publications.
View all posts by Raju Mansukhani →
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