SPACE/COSMOS

Combination of cosmic processes shapes the size and location of sub-Neptunes

Newly developed tool helps parse data and detect planets smaller than Neptune around young stars, providing insight into their formation

Penn State

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Using a newly developed tool to sift through data from the NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite, a team led by a Penn State astronomer has identified young sub-Neptune planets close to their stars and found that a variety of cosmic process may have shaped their size and location. In this hypothetical planetary system depicted over time, the planets b through f are depicted at three distinct stages: 10–100 Myr (top panel), 100 Myr–1 Gyr (middle panel), and >1 Gyr (bottom panel). This progression highlights key processes shaping the system, such as atmospheric mass loss and compositional evolution driven by stellar radiation and planetary interactions.

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Credit: Abigail Minnich (abbyminnich.wixsite.com/film)

UNIVERSITY PARK, Pa. — A combination of cosmic processes shapes the formation of one of the most common types of planets outside of our solar system, according to a new study led by researchers at Penn State. The research team used data from NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) to study young sub-Neptunes — planets bigger than Earth but smaller than Neptune — that orbit close to their stars. The work provides insights into how these planets might migrate inward or lose their atmosphere during their early stages.

A paper describing the research appeared today March 17 in the Astronomical Journal. The findings offer clues about the properties of sub-Neptunes and help address long-standing questions about their origins, the team said.

“The majority of the 5,500 or so exoplanets discovered to date have a very close orbit to their stars, closer than Mercury to our sun, which we call ‘close-in’ planets,” said Rachel Fernandes, President’s Postdoctoral Fellow in the Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics at Penn State and leader of the research team. “Many of these are gaseous sub-Neptunes, a type of planet absent from our own solar system. While our gas giants, like Jupiter and Saturn, formed farther from the sun, it’s unclear how so many close-in sub-Neptunes managed to survive near their stars, where they are bombarded by intense stellar radiation.”
 
To better understand how sub-Neptunes form and evolve, the researchers turned to planets around young stars, which only recently became observable thanks to TESS.

“Comparing the frequency of exoplanets of certain sizes around stars of different ages can tell us a lot about the processes that shape planet formation,” Fernandes said. “If planets commonly form at specific sizes and locations, we should see a similar frequency of those sizes across different ages. If we don’t, it suggests that certain processes are changing these planets over time.”

Observing planets around young stars, however, has traditionally been difficult. Young stars emit bursts of intense radiation, rotate quickly and are highly active, creating high levels of “noise” that make it challenging to observe planets around them. 

“Young stars in their first billion years of life throw tantrums, emitting a ton of radiation,” Fernandes explained. “These stellar tantrums cause a lot of noise in the data, so we spent the last six years developing a computational tool called Pterodactyls to see through that noise and actually detect young planets in TESS data.”

The research team used Pterodactyls to evaluate TESS data and identify planets with orbital periods of 12 days or less — for reference, much less than Mercury’s 88-day orbit —with the goal of examining the planet sizes, as well as how the planets were shaped by the radiation from their host stars. Because the team’s survey window was 27 days, this allowed them to see two full orbits from potential planets. They focused on planets between a radius of 1.8 and 10 times the size of Earth, allowing the team to see if the frequency of sub-Neptunes is similar or different in young systems versus older systems previously observed with TESS and NASA’s retired Kepler Space Telescope. 

The researchers found that the frequency of close-in sub-Neptunes changes over time, with fewer sub-Neptunes around stars between 10 and 100 million years of age compared to those between 100 million and 1 billion years of age. However, the frequency of close-in sub-Neptunes is much less in older, more stable systems. 

“We believe a variety of processes are shaping the patterns we see in close-in stars of this size,” Fernandes said. “It’s possible that many sub-Neptunes originally formed further away from their stars and slowly migrated inward over time, so we see more of them at this orbital period in the intermediate age. In later years, it’s possible that planets are more commonly shrinking when radiation from the star essentially blows away its atmosphere, a process called atmospheric mass loss that could explain the lower frequency of sub-Neptunes. But it’s likely a combination of cosmic processes shaping these patterns over time rather than one dominant force.”

The researchers said they would like to expand their observation window with TESS to observe planets with longer orbital periods. Future missions like the European Space Agency’s PLATO may also allow the research team to observe planets of smaller sizes, similar to that of Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars. Expanding their analysis to smaller and more distant planets could help the researchers refine their tool and provide additional information about how and where planets form. 

Additionally, NASA’s James Webb Space Telescope could permit the characterization of the density and composition of individual planets, which Fernandes said could give additional hints to where they formed. 

“Combining studies of individual planets with the population studies like we conducted here would give us a much better picture of planet formation around young stars,” Fernandes said. “The more solar systems and planets we discover, the more we realize that our solar system isn’t really the template; it’s an exception. Future missions might enable us to find smaller planets around young stars and give us a better picture of how planetary systems form and evolve with time, helping us better understand how our solar system, as we know it today, came to be.”

In addition to Fernandes, the research team at Penn State includes Rebekah Dawson, Shaffer Career Development Professor in Science and professor of astronomy and astrophysics at the time of the research and now a physical scientist at NASA. The research team also includes Galen J. Bergsten, Ilaria Pascucci, Kevin K. Hardegree-Ullman, Tommi T. Koskinen and Katia Cunha at the University of Arizona; Gijs Mulders at Pontifical Catholic University of Chile; Steven Giacalone, Eric Mamajek, Kyle Pearson, David Ciardi, Preethi Karpoor, Jessie Christiansen and Jon Zink at the California Institute of Technology; James Rogers at the University of Cambridge, Los Angeles; Akash Gupta at Princeton University; Kiersten Boley at the Carnegie Institution for Science; Jason Curtis at Columbia University; Sabina Sagynbayeva at Stony Brook University; Sakhee Bhure at the University of Southern Queensland in Australia; and Gregory Feiden at the University of North Georgia.

Funding from NASA, including through support of the “Alien Earths” grant; Chile’s National Fund for Scientific and Technological Development; and the U.S. National Science Foundation supported this research. Additional support was provided by the Penn State Center for Exoplanets and Habitable Worlds and the Penn State Extraterrestrial Intelligence Center. Computations for this research were performed with Penn State’s University’s Institute for Computational and Data Sciences’ Roar supercomputer.

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Journal

The Astronomical Journal

DOI

10.3847/1538-3881/adb97e 

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

"Signatures of Atmospheric Mass Loss and Planet Migration in the Time Evolution of Short-period Transiting Exoplanets

Article Publication Date

17-Mar-2025

Deep dive into space turns up new Spitzer bubbles

Using AI image recognition, deep learning model efficiently and accurately finds structures related to star formation

Osaka Metropolitan University

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The images on the left show newly detected bubble-like structures, while the images on the right show the bubble-like structure detected in this study and previous studies. By using wavelengths of 8 μm (green) and 24 μm (red), it is possible to detect the bubble structures created by the formation of high-mass stars.

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Credit: Osaka Metropolitan University

To learn more about the deepest reaches of our own galaxy and the mysteries of star formation, Japanese researchers have created a deep learning model. The Osaka Metropolitan University-led team used artificial intelligence to pore through the vast amounts of data being acquired from space telescopes, finding bubble-like structures that had not been included in existing astronomical databases.

The Milky Way galaxy we live in, like other galaxies in the universe, has bubble-like structures formed mainly during the birth and activity of high-mass stars. These so-called Spitzer bubbles hold important clues to understanding the process of star formation and galaxy evolution.

Graduate School of Science student Shimpei Nishimoto and Professor Toshikazu Onishi collaborated with scientists from across Japan to develop the deep learning model. Using data from the Spitzer Space Telescope and James Webb Space Telescope, the model employs AI image recognition to efficiently and accurately detect Spitzer bubbles. They also detected shell-like structures that are thought to have been formed by supernova explosions.

“Our results show it is possible to conduct detailed investigations not only of star formation, but also of the effects of explosive events within galaxies,” stated graduate student Nishimoto.

Professor Onishi added, “In the future, we hope that advancements in AI technology will accelerate the elucidation of the mechanisms of galaxy evolution and star formation.”

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About OMU 

Established in Osaka as one of the largest public universities in Japan, Osaka Metropolitan University is committed to shaping the future of society through “Convergence of Knowledge” and the promotion of world-class research. For more research news, visit https://www.omu.ac.jp/en/ and follow us on social media: X, Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn.

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Journal

Publications of the Astronomical Society of Japan

DOI

10.1093/pasj/psaf008 

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Infrared Bubble Recognition in the Milky Way and Beyond Using Deep Learning

Article Publication Date

17-Mar-2025

 

Global warming can lead to inflammation in human airways, new research shows

Drier air caused by climate change poses respiratory health risk by dehydrating airways, researchers say

Johns Hopkins Medicine

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In a recent, cross-institutional study partially funded by the National Institutes of Health, researchers report that healthy human airways are at higher risk for dehydration and inflammation when exposed to dry air, an occurrence expected to increase due to global warming. Inflammation in human airways is associated with such conditions as asthma, allergic rhinitis and chronic cough.

Researchers say that as the Earth’s atmosphere heats up, with relative humidity staying mostly the same, a property of the atmosphere called vapor pressure deficit (VPD) increases at a rapid rate. VPD is a measure of how “thirsty” for water air can be. The higher VPD becomes, the greater the evaporation rate of water, thus dehydrating planetary ecosystems.

Based on mathematical predications and experiments, researchers now explain that higher VPD can dehydrate upper airways and trigger the body’s inflammatory and immune response. In the full report, published March 17 in Communications Earth & Environment, they also say that such dehydration and inflammation can be exacerbated by mouth breathing (rates of which are also increasing) and more exposure to air-conditioned and heated indoor air.

“Air dryness is as critical to air quality as air dirtiness, and managing the hydration of our airways is as essential as managing their cleanliness,” says lead author David Edwards, adjunct professor of medicine at the Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine. “Our findings suggest that all mucosa exposed to the atmosphere, including ocular mucosa, are at risk in dehydrating atmospheres.”

Edwards and the team first looked at whether transpiration, a water loss process that occurs in plants, occurs in mucus of upper airways exposed to dry air environments. High rates of transpiration have proven to cause damaging compression to cells within the leaves of plants, threatening plant survival. The team also sought to see if such compression occurred in upper airway cells.

Researchers exposed cultures of human cells that line the upper airway, known as human bronchial epithelium, to dry air. After exposure, the cells were evaluated for mucus thickness and inflammatory responses. Cells that experienced periods of dry air (with a high VPD) showed thinner mucus and high concentrations of cytokines, or proteins indicating cell inflammation. These results agree with theoretical predictions that mucus thinning occurs in dry air environments and can produce enough cellular compression to trigger inflammation.

The team also confirmed that inflammatory mucus transpiration occurs during normal, relaxed breathing (also called tidal breathing) in an animal model. Researchers exposed healthy mice and mice with preexisting airway dryness, which is common in chronic respiratory diseases, to a week of intermittent dry air. Mice with this preexisting dehydration exhibited immune cells in their lungs, indicating a high inflammatory response, while all mice exposed only to moist air did not.

Based on a climate model study that the team also conducted, they predict that most of America will be at an elevated risk of airway inflammation by the latter half of the century due to higher temperatures and drier air.

Researchers concluded their work by saying these results have implications for other physiological mechanisms in the body, namely dry eye and the movement of water in mucus linings in the eye.

“This manuscript is a game changer for medicine, as human mucosa dehydration is currently a critical threat to human health, which will only increase as global warming continues,” says study co-author Justin Hanes, Ph.D., the Lewis J. Ort Professor of Ophthalmology at the Wilmer Eye Institute, Johns Hopkins Medicine. “Without a solution, human mucosa will become drier over the years, leading to increased chronic inflammation and associated afflictions.”

“Understanding how our airways dehydrate on exposure to dry air can help us avoid or reverse the inflammatory impact of dehydration by effective behavioral changes, and preventive or therapeutic interventions,” says Edwards.

Collaborators and authors of this research include Aurélie Edwards, Dan Li and Linying Wang of Boston University; Kian Fan Chung of Imperial College London; Deen Bhatta and Andreas Bilstein of Sensory Cloud Inc.; Indika Endirisinghe and Britt Burton Freeman of Illinois Institute of Technology; and Mark Gutay, Alessandra Livraghi-Butrico and Brian Button of University of North Carolina. The authors report no conflict of interest.

A portion of this research was funded by NIH grants R01HL125280, P01HL164320 and P30DK065988.

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Journal

Communications Earth & Environment

DOI

10.1038/s43247-025-02161-z 

 

Pro-life people partly motivated to prevent casual sex, study finds

Society for Personality and Social Psychology

(Note: The following press release was prepared by Brunel University of London.)

Abortion is murder – the emotive rallying cry popular with pro-life campaigners keen to convert others to their cause. But what if opposition to abortion isn’t all about sanctity-of-life concerns, and instead at least partly about discouraging casual sex?

That’s what psychology researchers found in experiments designed to test what really drives anti-abortion attitudes in the USA. The study, published today in the journal Social Psychological and Personality Science, challenges how most pro-life individuals justify their views on abortion.

“Previous research has sometimes assumed that pro-life attitudes are sincerely driven by beliefs about when life begins or about sanctity-of-life concerns,” said Dr Jordan Moon, a social psychologist and lecturer from Brunel University of London. “But people often care deeply about the behaviour of those around them. In particular, some people believe that loose sexual norms are damaging to society. People who associate abortion rights with loose norms might thus dislike abortion.”

The researchers – Dr Moon and Dr Jaimie Arona Krems, from the University of California, Los Angeles – distinguish between two possible accounts: a “face-value account,” which takes people at their word that their opposition to abortion is driven solely by sanctity-of-life concerns, and a “strategic account,” which suggests that pro-life positions are at least partly motivated by other concerns, which people might not be consciously aware of.

“The strategic account doesn’t imply that pro-life individuals are being disingenuous,” Dr Moon explained. “When they say that abortion is murder, they aren’t lying about what they believe.”

To test the strategic and face-value accounts against each other, the researchers assessed US citizens’ support for different political bills aimed at saving the same number of lives and having the same costs to taxpayers, but varying in their implications for the costs of casual sex.

In three experiments, they showed 1,960 participants, at random, different bills that would reduce abortions in different ways:

• a punishment bill that would make abortions illegal, with fines and possible jail time for women and the doctors – which could be perceived as making casual sex more costly
• a comprehensive sex education bill that would prevent unwanted pregnancies, and therefore abortions, through birth control – which could be perceived as facilitating casual sex
• an abstinence-only education bill that would prevent unwanted pregnancies by discouraging sex before or outside marriage – which could be perceived as inhibiting casual sex

The participants rated the bill they were shown, and answered questions to assess how religious they are, their political leanings and their views about casual sex.

All bills were described as preventing the same number of abortions, so if the face-value account was correct, then each of the bills would be similarly supported.

However, the strongest opponents of abortion showed strong preferences against the comprehensive sex education bill, instead giving relatively more support to bills aimed at preventing abortions by punishing women for abortion, or by providing abstinence-only sex education – a bill that differed from the comprehensive sex education bill only in being explicitly opposed to casual sex. These results held even when controlling for religiosity, social conservatism and economic conservatism, suggesting that they are not simply due to religious or conservative preferences.

Additional analyses found that participants do indeed agree that the punishment and abstinence-only sex education bills are somewhat intended to – and likely to –decrease casual sex, relative to the comprehensive sex education bill.

“On balance, the data from our experiments lend greater support to the strategic account,” said Dr Moon. “Indeed, our findings present some challenges to the face-value account. People who say abortion is murder don’t seem to equally support all possible policies that would reduce abortions. Rather, it seems that they prefer policies that prevent abortions specifically in ways that discourage casual sex.”

Dr Moon added that both pro-life and pro-choice individuals get behind memorable mantras chanted at protests. “It’s possible that the commonly-voiced justifications for pro-life positions, such as sanctity-of-life concerns, are not actually the cause of pro-life attitudes, but are more socially desirable than other possible justifications,” he said. “I think this is a common process that happens within all of us. We often don’t know where our attitudes come from, but when we present them to others, we naturally want to present the best arguments we can think of. In this case, saying you oppose abortion because you care about life is probably more convincing than saying you don’t want society to be accepting of casual sex.” 

The researchers do not suggest that motivations to discourage casual sex are the sole driver of anti-abortion attitudes, given that even the strongest abortion opponents tended to report at least moderate support for comprehensive sex education in both experiments.

“Abortion attitudes likely depend on a wide range of influences,” said Dr Krems, an associate professor of psychology, “and abortion opponents are not unique in making moral arguments that may be, deep down, self-interested. Rather, our findings simply suggest that all people are prone, at least to some extent, to self-interested biases across a wide variety of moral judgements.”

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Journal

Social Psychological and Personality Science

DOI

10.1177/19485506251320681 

Method of Research

Survey

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Pro-Life Policy Preferences Partly Reflect Desires to Suppress Casual Sexual Behavior, Not Solely Sanctity of Life Concerns

Article Publication Date

17-Mar-2025

 

Top locations for ocean energy production worldwide revealed

Unique FAU Engineering Study Has Great News for East Florida and South Africa

Florida Atlantic University

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This map of kinetic energy flux shows the global average power density calculated using drifter data in watts per square meter.

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Credit: Florida Atlantic University

As global electricity demand grows, traditional energy sources are under strain. Oceans, which cover more than 70% of Earth’s surface, offer vast potential for clean energy from renewable resources such as ocean currents and waves.

However, marine renewable energy development is still in its early stages compared to wind and solar power. One challenge is identifying the most feasible and economically viable locations for ocean current energy projects. While many studies have focused on regional ocean current energy resource assessment, a global evaluation based on actual data has been lacking – until now.

Using more than 30 years of measured data from NOAA’s Global Drifter Program (GDP), a unique study from the College of Engineering and Computer Science at Florida Atlantic University provides the most comprehensive global assessment of ocean current energy to date. And there’s great news for Southeast Florida.

Researchers explored the potential of capturing kinetic energy from ocean currents, focusing on power density estimation and its variation over time and location. The GDP includes about 1,250 satellite-tracked buoys that measure ocean currents and their positions. For this study, researchers used more than 43 million data points from March 1988 to September 2021.

Results, published in the journal Renewable Energy, reveal that the waters off  Florida’s East coast and South Africa consistently exhibited high power densities, making them ideal for generating electricity from ocean currents. Specifically, these regions showed power densities above 2,500 watts per square meter, a value 2.5 times more energy dense than an “excellent” wind energy resource. The relatively shallow waters – about 300 meters deep – further enhance their suitability for extracting energy using ocean current turbines. In contrast, regions like Japan and parts of South America did not show similar power densities at these depths.

“Our study revealed that about 75% of the total high-power density areas, covering around 490,000 square kilometers of the ocean, have energy levels between 500 and 1,000 watts per square meter. This suggests there’s a lot of potential for harvesting energy from ocean currents, especially in regions where power densities are moderate yet significant for sustainable energy production,” said Mahsan Sadoughipour, Ph.D., first author and graduate research assistant in the College of Engineering and Computer Science. “Our study also provides insights into the factors that can influence the accuracy of energy generation estimates such as environmental conditions and measurement methods.” 

High power densities, more than 2,000 watts per square meter, are found off the Southeast coast of the U.S. from Florida to North Carolina and along the Eastern and Southeastern coasts of Africa (Somalia, Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa and Madagascar). Lower power densities are seen in the Eastern Pacific (Japan, Vietnam and Philippines), Northern South America (Brazil and French Guiana), and the Eastern coast of Australia.

Another key finding from the study was the accuracy of power density estimates. In North America and Japan, the calculations were highly reliable, providing confidence in energy potential predictions. Additionally, comparisons with existing studies have confirmed the reliability of the findings in these regions, as the power density estimates closely matched measurements obtained through other measurement methods. However, areas like South Africa and parts of South America, particularly off northern Brazil and French Guiana, were harder to assess due to limited data or highly variable water conditions.

“Regions like Brazil and South Africa have limited data available, which affect the accuracy of energy predictions, making it harder to fully assess their potential for energy extraction,” said Yufei Tang, Ph.D., co-author and an associate professor, FAU Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, director of the FPL Center for Intelligent Energy Technologies (InETech) (fau.edu/engineering/research/fpl-center-intelligent-energy-technologies/), and a fellow of the FAU Institute for Sensing and Embedded Network Systems Engineering (I-SENSE). “Expanding data collection will refine our understanding and unlock the full energy potential. For example, region-specific studies using acoustic Doppler current profilers could better estimate energy production for submerged turbines.”

Findings also show areas like South Africa and Japan, while having high power densities, present more challenges due to deeper waters and complex flow patterns. Deep-water areas (1,000 meters or more) make energy extraction more challenging.

“The relationship between depth and power density is crucial for turbine placement and design. Strong ocean currents are located near the sea surface where the total water depth typically ranges from 250 meters to more than 3,000 meters,” said James H. VanZwieten Jr., Ph.D., co-author and an assistant professor in the FAU Department of Ocean and Mechanical Engineering. “This presents significant challenges, as turbines would require advanced mooring systems to keep them stable and operational. The increased depth also raises concerns about the cost and complexity of installation and maintenance, making it essential to develop specialized technologies for these challenging environments.”

Seasonal variations also play a significant role in energy availability. In warmer months for the Northern hemisphere (June to August), higher power densities are observed in regions like Florida, Japan and Northern Brazil, aligning with increased energy demand during these months. Similarly, highest power densities in South Africa occurs during their warmer months (December to February). These seasonal patterns indicate that ocean current energy could align well with periods of higher electricity demand associated with increased air conditioning usage, making it a potentially reliable source of renewable energy.

“Accurate estimates of ocean current energy rely on critical factors such as data density, data type and flow variability,” said Stella Batalama, Ph.D., dean of the College of Engineering and Computer Science. “Findings from this study highlight the need to carefully consider these variables, and the provided energy characteristics will help ensuring that ocean current energy can be efficiently integrated into the broader renewable energy landscape.”

This work was supported in part by the National Science Foundation, the U.S. Department of Energy and the FPL InETech at FAU.

“This groundbreaking research further solidifies Southeast Florida as one of the premier locations for harnessing the power of ocean currents," said Gabriel Alsenas, director of FAU’s Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center. “At SNMREC, we are proud to be at the forefront of domestic energy innovation, driving progress toward a more resilient future. With our unique access to an abundant ocean current, we are leading the way in incubating cutting-edge technologies that will increase our regional energy security and national energy dominance.”

About FAU’s College of Engineering and Computer Science:

The FAU College of Engineering and Computer Science is internationally recognized for cutting-edge research and education in the areas of computer science and artificial intelligence (AI), computer engineering, electrical engineering, biomedical engineering, civil, environmental and geomatics engineering, mechanical engineering, and ocean engineering. Research conducted by the faculty and their teams expose students to technology innovations that push the current state-of-the art of the disciplines. The College research efforts are supported by the National Science Foundation (NSF), the National Institutes of Health (NIH), the Department of Defense (DOD), the Department of Transportation (DOT), the Department of Education (DOEd), the State of Florida, and industry. The FAU College of Engineering and Computer Science offers degrees with a modern twist that bear specializations in areas of national priority such as AI, cybersecurity, internet-of-things, transportation and supply chain management, and data science. New degree programs include Master of Science in AI (first in Florida), Master of Science and Bachelor in Data Science and Analytics, and the new Professional Master of Science and Ph.D. in computer science for working professionals. For more information about the College, please visit eng.fau.edu. 

 

About Florida Atlantic University:
Florida Atlantic University, established in 1961, officially opened its doors in 1964 as the fifth public university in Florida. Today, Florida Atlantic serves more than 30,000 undergraduate and graduate students across six campuses located along the Southeast Florida coast. In recent years, the University has doubled its research expenditures and outpaced its peers in student achievement rates. Through the coexistence of access and excellence, Florida Atlantic embodies an innovative model where traditional achievement gaps vanish. Florida Atlantic is designated as a Hispanic-serving institution, ranked as a top public university by U.S. News & World Report, and holds the designation of “R1: Very High Research Spending and Doctorate Production” by the Carnegie Classification of Institutions of Higher Education. Florida Atlantic shares this status with less than 5% of the nearly 4,000 universities in the United States. For more information, visit www.fau.edu.

 

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Journal

Renewable Energy

DOI

10.1016/j.renene.2025.122576 

Method of Research

Computational simulation/modeling

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Drifter-based global ocean current energy resource assessment