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Sunday, October 25, 2026

 

Chapel Perilous: The Life and Thought Crimes of Robert Anton Wilson — An Interview with Prop Anon

 

Interview with Prop Anon by R.U. Sirius

I don’t think anyone would have suspected it back in the ’60s and ’70s, but the author Robert Anton Wilson may have emerged as the most influential counterculture figure of those times. Who else has massive followings of fans fighting over the implications of his politics and philosophy? I can’t think of anyone.

RAW requires no introduction with this crowd but for those of you stumbling in, here’s a wikipedia page with a full bibliography.

PROP ANON is the author of the upcoming Chapel Perilous: The Life and Thought Crimes of Robert Anton Wilson, the first official biography of the late counterculture philosopher. He started his career as a Hip-Hop artist whose 2010 album Squat the Condos presaged the Occupy movement. In 2014, Prop switched musical gears and released a Stoner Rock album called HAIL ERIS! with his band, HAIL ERIS!  

R.U. Sirius: Is there anything about Bob’s childhood that indicates that he will become a counterculture philosopher of note?

Prop Anon: Bob was born in Flatbush, Brooklyn and spent his childhood in one of its most remote neighborhoods, Gerritsen Beach. He described the one-road-town as an “Irish Catholic Ghetto,” as he grew up a prodigious youth who survived two bouts of Polio, child abuse at the hands of the nuns who ran his grammar school, and a narrow-minded working-class neighborhood. The polio that nearly killed him was almost completely cured by The Sister Kenny Method — which today is considered ‘alternative’ medicine, but in 1935 denounced as quackery by the medical establishment. Sister Kenny proved everyone wrong and eventually was considered an alternative medicine pioneer. More indirectly he received inspiration from his favorite contemporary artist, Orson Welles. Welles played with the notion of uncertainty in nearly all his work, and this spoke to Bob. Bob was a fan of Welles’ since his 1938 ‘War of the World’s” was performed on the radio, which catapulted the then 23-year-old Welles to fame. Events like these, and more, sent the message early on to Bob that a keen sense of self was a necessary survival tool. He possessed the desire and capacity to live counter to the dominant culture, and he did. Wilson, like many of his generation, faced some serious existential threats living in a society deeply immersed in bullshit. As a response he developed a highly functional ‘Bullshit Detector.”

RUS: Were you able to learn much about Bob’s time at Playboy? Fun stories from the Bunny Empire? Did he like Hef?

PA: There are some stories about Bob’s time at Playboy, which he never wrote about in his books. One story he called ‘How I became a Paranoid,’ which began when a mysterious Playboy executive visited his office during a workday and told him that his name was added to Chicago PD’s ‘Red Squad,’ which was a list of radical people the authorities put under surveillance. An early example of Red Squad behavior was seen in 1886, when Chicago agents targeted Anarchists with surveillance directly after the Haymarket Affair in 1886. 85 years later, there were specific Red Squad agents that targeted people like Bob, who they would have called a ‘closet hippie.’ In others, a person who had a regular job and didn’t dress like a hippie yet were protesting the Vietnam War. During this visit, Bob and Arlen, were at their peak of political activism. Both were involved with local Anarchist groups; Arlen was an early member of the Anarcho-Feminist group and magazine, Siren. She was also a part of the Chicago Woman Liberation Union (CWLU) Bob was exploring a Surrealist angle of Anarchism, through his associations with Franklin Rosemont and the Chicago Surrealist Group. They were both part of an Anarchist group that changed its name for every event. On top of that, Arlen and Bob were sociable people who hosted parties and discussion groups at their apartment.

In Bob’s office the mysterious executive had shut the door and told him that a police informant had tipped the Chicago PD off to Bob’s activities as a gunrunner for the Black Panthers. Bob said that he and Arlen were actually helping the Panthers with their influential Free Breakfast program for local children. After Bob denied the accusation he asked how Playboy was able to find out about police informants circulating through radical circles within Chicago. The executive told Bob that Playboy had their own cadre of informants, who heard the whispers of police informants and then reported to Playboy, especially when it concerned someone who worked at Playboy. Perhaps this Playboy editor was playing a prank on Bob. There was never any tip to the ‘Red Squad,’ just a great bullshiter who wanted to test Bob Wilson. However, the FBI’s COINTELPRO was going strong during this time, and the extent of the spying on activist communities by law enforcement agencies was not fully known to the public as of 1971. Bob later said this conversation sparked the idea for the character Tobias Knight from Illuminatus! Knight is a quintuple-agent and is the punchline to the joke highlighting about how many agents and informants there were in resistance movements of the late 60s, and continue to be today.

As far as Wilson and Hefner went, from my research, it seems like Bob did not really know Hefner on a personal level. He and Arlen, did however, attend some of Hefner’s movie nights at the Playboy mansion while Bob worked at Playboy. Wilson appreciated Hefner’s stance on Civil Liberty issues within the United States. Both were committed to the First Amendment, and Playboy was a progressive voice within the media when it came to such issues. Something about his job at Playboy must have worked because Bob was able to harness his ability as a writer. He honed his craft while working at Playboy, wrote Illuminatus! with his co-worker and friend, Robert Shea, and managed to provide full medical and dental insurance for his family while getting paid, Playboy worked well for Bob and his family.

 

RAW & Robert Shea

 

R.U.S: Robert Shea — coauthor of Illuminatus Triology — sort of ended up being “the quiet one”. What can you tell us about Shea and he and Bob’s relationship?

PA:Wilson and Shea became fast friends at Playboy. They would hang out together at the bar on payday. They, and their wives, would all hang out, smoke weed, watch TV or listen to records and think of funny sketches that made each other laugh. They had a lot in common: Both raised Irish Catholic, both left the Church young, both seeking to become full time free-lance writers. They both really dug into the Anarchist perspective. After Illuminatus!, Shea went on to start an Anarchist newsletter called No Governor, which Wilson contributed to. Wilson had a talent for collaborating with like-minded artists and thinkers; his and Shea’s collaboration resulted in Illuminatus! and that was itself a further collaboration out of their involvement with The Discordian Society. The two continually spoke of writing their sequel, Bride of Illuminatus, which they barely started before Shea was diagnosed with cancer. Shea’s death left Bob deeply distraught. Michael Shea, described seeing Bob at his father’s funeral looking shook by the whole event. Bob’s eulogy, Chimes at Midnight, published in Cosmic Trigger vol. III, written shortly after Shea provides a glimpse into Bob’s thoughts about his dead friend.

 

Arlen & Robert Anton Wilson

R.U.S: He had a long and loving marriage to Arlen, all of it in the midst of a lot of cultural chaos and sexual libertinism. Any complications there?

PA: The short answer is, yes, there were bumps in the road, though they chose to stay committed to their marriage. That said, while Bob was working at Playboy, her two daughters told me that Arlen had a short-lived affair with a mutual friend of theirs; a fellow activist who attended Arlen’s weekly meetings. Alex believes that Bob was also having an affair with his secretary at Playboy, Pat. Though Christina believes that Bob only went so far as flirting with Pat and never engaged physically with her. Christina says she knows this because she asked her father towards the end of his life if he’d ever had an affair while married to Arlen. She told me that he said he never did because Arlen was everything he needed. This moment of Arlen’s affair, and Bob’s possible affair, occurred at a very intense time for the Wilson family. A psychic pressure had built up around the whole family during 1970 &’ 71. Bob believed his family may have been under some type of surveillance, and Arlen was immersed in a ‘mid-life crisis,’ while battling depression. The pressure was felt by their children as well, as Christina was going through her own battles with Trichotillomania-compulsive hair pulling due to anxiety. Bob was unaware of Arlen’s affair at the time, but his feeling that he needed a change may have saved their marriage, as the following years of adventure and poverty drew the two even closer together, remaining so until Arlen’s death in 1999.

R.U.S.: He was a self-described libertarian who went on welfare to finish Illuminatus. Was this a struggle for him?

PA: While Wilson did call himself a Libertarian at times, he did not go on welfare to finish Illuminatus! Wilson and Shea completed their novel, in 1971, while Bob was still working for Playboy. It was the completion of the book, and the confidence he felt in it being picked up quickly by a publisher, which played a role in his leaving the magazine. Wilson went on welfare during his tour of Chapel Perilous in 1973, two years after completing Illuminatus! He went on welfare because of the financial struggles he faced while getting his freelance writing career off the ground. During the period of 1971 to ’76, Wilson produced a dizzying number of articles, taught classes at his family’s apartment, published three non-fiction books through Playboy Press, his first fiction book with a small publisher, also pitching numerous books proposals to other publishers, while working as a book reviewer for the San Francisco Phoenix. On top of all this, he still needed to go on welfare. With the publication of Illuminatus! Wilson’s earnings rose incrementally, however, most of his career he was “living paycheck to paycheck” like most Americans, until the day he died.

His appreciation for Libertarianism, seems most informed, to me at least, through his exposure to the work of the American Individualist-Anarchist, Benjamin Tucker. Wilson read nearly all of Tucker’s journal, Liberty, when he lived and worked at the School of Living in Ohio in 1962-63. Tucker, and other Individual-Anarchists like Lysander Spooner, Ezra Heywood, Josiah Warren, and a few others are often left out of the narrative of the Anarchist tradition within America, as Emma Goldman and the Anarcho-Communists are mistakenly credited with bringing Anarchism to America. The influence of Ayn Rand, Ludwig Von Mises, and Murray Rothbard pale in comparison to the work of Tucker and the Individualist-Anarchists. Wilson also liked Bucky Fuller’s radically optimistic declarations that it is possible for everyone on earth to live more abundantly than ever before. These two philosophies are prominent threads in an eclectic economic and political lattice that he called ‘Non-Euclidean Politics.’ He rejected the economics of scarcity and concentrated his efforts in how to conceive of tapping into the abundant energy sources that are not yet ‘in-tune,’ like how electricity was not in tune at one point, there may be other energy sources which our minds haven’t learned how to grasp yet. The ultimate nexus for his ‘Non-Euclidean Politics’ is a ‘non-zero-sum society,’ where cut throat ruthless competition is phased out by exchanges guided by cooperation and equality. Wilson’s views moved in flux and he liked to change the different hats he was trying on quickly at times. I’d like to think that I unpack Wilson’s ‘Non-Euclidean’ political perspective, thoroughly in my book.

 

R.U.S: Reading his essays and his collaborations with Timothy Leary I imagined them as hangout buddies. But there lives were pretty separate and their temperaments were pretty different. Any thoughts in this regard?

PA: Going into the research phase of Chapel Perilous: The Life and Thought Crimes of Robert Anton Wilson, I was also under the impression that Bob and Tim were “hang out buddies.” It is clear to me that the two had a tremendous amount of respect for each other, and both believed deeply in the others work. They were intellectual comrades, much like Shea and Gregory Hill were his artist comrades. Wilson and Leary inspired each other as they enthusiastically crafted and refined the 8-Circuit Model of Intelligence together. I got a chance to view the successive drafts of their book The Game of Life, during visits to the Timothy Leary Archive at the New York Public Library, and it really shows how much of a collaboration that book and the 8-Circuit Model of Intelligence really was.

Personally, Bob and Tim really liked each other. I think Wilson enjoyed Leary’s freewheeling ways. Tim was extremely outgoing and charming, while Bob could come across as aloof at times. Bob, when not on the microphone, was often was quiet and polite. Leary was more gregarious. Tim believed that Wilson was an extremely important philosopher. Another layer of companionship exists between the two as both had children who were schizophrenic. Tim’s daughter, Susan, suffered greatly from schizophrenia-she ultimately took her own life after she was arrested for the attempted murder of her live-in boyfriend. Bob’s son, Graham, had a schizophrenic break when his sister, Luna was murdered in 1976. Bob was reticent in speaking about his son’s illness, and he never once mentioned Graham’s battle with the disease in any of his books. However, he was able to speak openly with Tim Leary about his son because he knew Leary was going through something similar. This could have strengthened their bond as friends.

As far as hanging out goes, I think Wilson and Leary probably hung out most when Bob and Arlen were living in West Hollywood from 1988 to the early 90s. Leary was living in Beverly Hills at the time, and the two were often on speaking panels together.

During the 90s, when Bob and Arlen moved to Santa Cruz, he and Leary saw less of each other. Arlen’s health issues with her heart began shortly after arriving in Santa Cruz and Bob’s attention increasingly turned towards taking care of his wife, while maintaining a very disciplined writing practice of typing for hours a day. Though they hung out less and less in the 90s, their friendship remained strong. When Tim was nearing his death, Bill Maher invited him in his television show Politically Incorrect. Maher wanted to provide Leary a proper media toast, as opposed to the litany of media roasts he endured over the years. When Leary was unable to attend, he sent Bob to take his place. Leary had more famous friends than Bob, and it’s clear from viewing the episode that Bill Maher never heard of Bob before, but he chose to send Bob because he knew that Bob could best relate Leary’s perspectives. It was also a cool thing to do for Bob, as mainstream media attention eluded him in America throughout his career, appearing on the show may have given him a boost in book sales that month.

R.U.S.: Bob did not like the radical left and he was a bit into a “men’s rights” thing —writing, essentially, that some aspects of feminism were dehumanizing men. I wonder if you dealt with that and how you feel and think about it.

PA: I wouldn’t say that Wilson disliked the radical left. I think he was opposed to when the radical left, or any group of people, engaged in groupthink and witch hunt behavior. From the later 50s on, he wrote for Paul Krassner’s pioneering underground newspaper, The Realist, while living in Yellow Springs, Ohio and he took part in a civil rights protest to desegregate a local barbershop, which led to the only arrest of his life. This protest has become local legend as the chaos of that day made the national news. His work with the Chicago Black Panthers during the late 1960s and his role as an organizer of Anti-Vietnam War demonstrations got him tagged as a radical leftist by local authorities.

Wilson remained committed to the idea that only Individual events and creatures exist in nature. Though one can be associated with a group, one can never be branded the same as a group. This was even the premise of his first, unpublished book, Authority and Submission. To Wilson, groups are grammatical fictions and only individuals exist. Most of philosophy is concerned with how to open one’s mind to this, because, he hoped, this raising of consciousness would decrease the amount of violence in the world.

Wilson’s criticism of some opinions expressed in radical feminist rhetoric begins with their stated assertions that “All men are potential rapists,” or “All men are pigs,” etc. Wilson regarded such demonological thinking as a conspiracy theory, because the statement has fallen into the realm of either/or logic that Wilson’s General Semantics training would not let him accept any value from the previous statements. He especially disliked Andrea Dworkin, Gloria Steinem, and MS. Magazine. He thought that much of the theory coming forth from some radical feminist camps in the early 1970s was unproductive and divisive. Arlen Wilson was an avowed feminist and women’s rights activist throughout her life. Bob listened to Arlen’s perspectives on gender issues. There was a healthy discussion and debate about gender issues going on in their marriage. Arlene Meyers, the co-founder of Siren called Bob a ‘sexist pig.’ Many years later, Bob told me that the greatest compliment he’d ever received was from Arlen who told him that if all men were like him there would be no need for feminism. Wilson believed he saw some unproductive tendencies forming in some feminist circles in the early 1970s, and he had a point. At the same time, I wonder how quickly he threw the proverbial baby out with the bath water, as his rejection of a whole group based on some stupid statements does not seem to fit with his constant stress of remaining open minded.

I dedicate more ink to this timely aspect of Wilson’s thought in my book Chapel Perilous: The Life and Thought Crimes of Robert Anton Wilson. His comments and positions are worthy of heavy scrutiny, and I hope that my book provides a critical eye on Wilson in this area.






 

Why humans are wired to appreciate beauty: Nicholas Humphrey's "Why Is the World So Beautiful?"



From a pioneering neuropsychologist and the winner of the Mind and Brain Prize



The MIT Press

Nicholas Humphrey

image: 

An image of author Nicholas Humphrey

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Credit: The MIT Press. 2026.



Why Is the World So Beautiful?

Our Minds in Search of Nature’s Rhymes

HUMPHREY IS THE 2026 WINNER OF THE DENNETT PRIZE BY THE INTERNATIONAL CENTER FOR CONSCIOUSNESS STUDIES

Hardcover
ISBN: 9780262056588
Pub date: October 6, 2026
224 pp., 5 x 8 in., 54 b&w illus.
$29.95


FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE

CAMBRIDGE, MA — A fascinating inquiry into why beauty matters and how it has played an evolutionary role in our understanding of the world, from a pioneering neuropsychologist.

Why do we love beauty? And why is the world so full of it? From rainbows and mountain landscapes to piano sonatas and Cézanne paintings, much of what we find beautiful seems to serve no practical purpose, despite our instinctive attraction to it. In Why Is the World So Beautiful?, psychologist Nicholas Humphrey offers a bold new explanation: the benefits of being drawn to beauty are primarily cognitive—we’re training our minds.

Inspired by a line from the poet Gerard Manley Hopkins, that “all beauty may be called rhyme,” Humphrey argues that by actively searching for rhyming connections between things, we establish the “mental models” that guide our understanding of the world. These rhymes extend beyond sounds to shapes, colors, objects, and even abstract ideas. Just as we need food to nourish our bodies, we need rhymes to nourish our minds.

Our attraction to rhymes and patterns culminates in a uniquely human form of aesthetic emotion, one that recognizes that all artistry must issue from an artist. This leads Humphrey to his boldest claim: when we encounter beauty in the natural world, we are responding as if to a hidden artist’s—or Creator’s—hand. The result is a daring and illuminating argument for why beauty moves us—and why our hunger for it is as fundamental as our need for meaning itself.

About the Author: Nicholas Humphrey is Emeritus Professor of Psychology at the London School of Economics and a theoretical psychologist based in Cambridge who studies the evolution of intelligence and consciousness. He was the first to demonstrate the existence of “blindsight” in monkeys and has studied mountain gorillas with Dian Fossey in Rwanda. He has proposed the celebrated theory of the “social function of intellect” and investigated the evolutionary background of religion, art, healing, death awareness, and suicide. In 2026, Humphrey was awarded the Dennett Prize by the International Center for Consciousness Studies. His additional honors include the Martin Luther King Memorial Prize, the Pufendorf Medal, and the International Mind and Brain Prize. His most recent book is Sentience (MIT Press).

REVIEWS

“An edifying rumination on why beauty abounds.”
—Publishers Weekly

"In this roving study, neuropsychologist Humphrey interrogates why the human mind perceives beauty."
—The Millions

"The book is a fascinating exploration of the role that beauty plays in human psychology and evolution."
—Nautilus

"This is an exhilarating book. Nicholas Humphrey has always dared to extend neuroscience into other areas, such as philosophy and even poetry. Here he explores his core idea of rhyme as the key not just to our experience of beauty but to our whole understanding of the world. He writes clearly and beautifully, with an infectious optimism which sees humans and the earth as two notes in tune, rather than as despoiler and despoiled. He even suggests (I think) that since we are universally moved to see a designer behind every design, there’s sense in doing so about the world. Philosophers haven’t agreed, but Humphrey is as happy to challenge philosophers as scientists. What larks! – He quotes Dickens too, and many other writers and artists. This is science as we don’t often see it."
—Carole Angier, award-winning biographer of Jean Rhys, Primo Levi and W G Sebald

Early Advance Praise:

“Humphrey has made major contributions to our understanding of topics that range across psychology, evolutionary theory, consciousness, and theory of mind. Now we can add Why Is the World So Beautiful? He tackles a topic that has been central to philosophizing since Plato but has never before been subjected to this particular intense combination of rigorous empirical examination and sharp philosophical analysis. A splendid book: provocative, passionate, and to a remarkable degree persuasive.”

— Sir Geoffrey Lloyd, Faculty of Classics, University of Cambridge

“Humphrey’s skills as an expositor on the science/philosophy interface shine through here. He doesn’t definitively answer the question in the title—nobody could! But he offers insights that will deepen any reader’s understanding of the issues.”

— Lord Martin Rees, Astronomer Royal; Member of the UK’s House of Lords; former President of the Royal Society

“In answer to the question ‘What is the essence of beauty?’ Humphrey offers a bold and compelling answer: our aesthetic instincts are shaped by an innate sensitivity to rhyme—not just in poetry, but in the echoes, patterns, and symmetries that pervade the visual, auditory, and even conceptual realms. This is an illuminating and deeply thought-provoking exploration—one that will reshape how we understand aesthetics, evolution, and the very nature of human experience.”

— Paul Broks, neuropsychologist; author of The Darker the Night, the Brighter the Stars

“Nicholas Humphrey’s enquiry into the nature of beauty is full of fresh insights. His emphasis on rhyme has primed me to look at flowers and trees anew and hear Bach’s music better. I am grateful for this sparklingly original book.”

— Rupert Sheldrake, biologist; author of Science Set Free

 

Read a Q&A with Humphrey and Nautilus

What Makes Life Beautiful?

The magic of rhyme and the search for a creator

 

Many years ago, evolutionary psychologist Nick Humphrey met a family in Turkey with eight children who were unable to walk upright. Due to a genetic disease, they could only get around on all fours. He and his colleagues had traveled to Turkey to study the family and to film them, as an extraordinary example of human development.

The children were young adults by the time Humphrey met them and had difficult lives. The other villagers scorned them, and would throw stones at them and tease them. But they seemed to love each other deeply and to enjoy their daily routines. The parents had been told by the local imam that the kids’ disabilities were, in fact, a gift from Allah, a test.

The family lived 30 miles from the seaside in the southwest part of Turkey, but had never been to the beach. So Humphrey and his colleagues took them on an excursion. The kids took a kind of delight in their first experience with the ocean that Humphrey says is difficult to describe. Their mother sat on the sand in her long dress, watching her children running on all fours into the water. She gazed at the waves breaking and the sky and the distant horizon, and she said, “I never knew Allah had made such a beautiful world.”

This is where Humphrey’s new book, Why is the World so Beautiful: Our Minds in Search of Nature’s Rhymes, begins. The book is a fascinating exploration of the role that beauty plays in human psychology and evolution. “We can’t but help see beauty when we find it, no matter how poor our circumstances,” he told me when we spoke this week. “We will then start asking questions about who made it for us.”

I spoke with Humphrey about where we find beauty in the world, what rhyme has to do with it, and why the Japanese language sounds so beautiful. We also talked about monkey aesthetics and how the rise of AI might influence how we understand beauty.

You write in the introduction that you had wanted to read a book called Why Is the World So Beautiful for many years. Why?

We all share it. The fact of beauty is such an important part of our lives—the beauty of nature as well as the beauty of paintings and music. And yet we have very little explanation of it from an evolutionary point of view.

By trade, I’m an evolutionary psychologist. I want to understand why our minds have evolved to have the needs and the characters that they do. I started working on this a long time ago. Some 50 years ago, just having finished my PhD, I thought I’d move on to do something rather different. I’d been working on the brains of monkeys and their visual systems, and I thought, “I’ll give that a rest and try and do some research on what monkeys would like to do if they had the choice rather than being submitted to my experiments.”

I set out to work on monkey aesthetics. I thought that would unlock the key to why humans like beauty. It wasn’t a huge success. I put monkeys in a situation where they could switch between pictures on a screen or between different sounds, for example. And then, I started giving them the obvious things. I played Bach and showed them paintings by Matisse. And it was a complete failure. The monkeys didn’t give a toss for these examples of human art. The things that they did mind about very strongly were colors, just plain fields of colored light, for example, got them quite worked up.

They would love blue light. Red got them very obsessed and they would do anything to escape it. I found the monkeys showed preferences. They looked at pictures of other monkeys. They enjoyed that. They liked Mickey Mouse films, provided they were played in the right direction, interestingly enough. They didn’t like them going backwards. But I didn’t find much evidence of what we might call an aesthetic sense in monkeys.

This was back in 1970. I wrote a long essay about the origins of beauty, and then I moved on to some other things. But it’s always been at the back of my mind. And I’ve been working on the nature of consciousness and, and intelligence since then, really nonstop.

I thought, if I don’t write this book now about beauty, I never will.

The argument you make in the book is that what we call beauty is based in rhyme, which is an idea you take from the poet Gerard Manley Hopkins. Can you tell me more about this idea?

It’s not obvious that a book about beauty would be a book about rhyme. Way back when I first started working on this topic, I was researching what had been written on it. And I came across this astonishing piece of work by Hopkins, the poet. He’d written an essay for his tutor at Oxford when he was a student there at the age of 20. It ran to 40,000 words and it was called “On the Origins of Beauty: A Platonic Dialogue.” And it just bowled me over. It’s an extraordinary piece of work. I think everybody should read it. I quote from it quite widely in the book.

And Hopkins sets this essay in the context of a discussion between a professor and a student in a college garden. He takes examples from the garden. He reaches for a bunch of chestnut leaves, for example. And he says, “Well, look at this. What’s going on here? Why do we find this beautiful? It’s because we’re exposed to intriguing, teasing examples of things which are alike but different.” Things, he says, which rhyme, which belong to the same category, but are different examples of it. He starts with flowers and then he goes on to poetry. He says that ideas rhyme. People can rhyme with each other and the way they behave and so on. He’s very persuasive.

I was taken aback by this idea. I suddenly began to realize that things I’d noticed and thought of as beautiful out there in the world, rainbows cutting across the sky and ideas I’d come across in books: They all showed the same characteristic. There was always rhyme at the bottom of them.

And in the book I run through a gallery of rhyme, because I want to show just how widespread this is, how things which you wouldn’t have thought of being in the same category actually do show the characteristic of balanced symmetry, ranging from rap by Eminem, to theories in physics and paintings by great artists and even football, the beautiful game as it has been called in this country.

And then, I sit there and say, “Well, what’s going on here? Why should we like these? Why should we like rhyme?” Here’s a simple example: The cat sat on the mat. We all know that it kind of works for us. “The cat sat on the sofa,” doesn’t work for us. Why? It’s certainly not obvious, and no one has written about it. When I looked into the scientific philosophical literature, nobody talks about rhyme or at least why we should like it.

One argument that you make in the book is that we are drawn to rhyme and order in nature because they suggest a benevolent creator, a good divine force. But rhyme has also been associated with evil or dark forces, sin, and entrapment. For example, in early Islam, certain oracles known as kahins would deliver their prophecies in rhyme, which were associated with evil spirits. And in John Milton’s Paradise Lost, rhyme is associated with Satan, sin, and the fall. Milton himself considered rhyme deceitful, restrictive, even barbarous. How do you square this history with your argument?

It’s true that rhyme is associated with magic. Partly because we don’t have an explanation of rhyme, it catches our attention. It alerts us. We think something’s going on there and we don’t really understand it. One thing people have said or imagined is that, of course, where there’s rhyme, there is some kind of elemental force, demonic or divine.

But somebody’s trying to tell us something. The same idea is taken up when people have written about coincidences, which are a kind of rhyme, two things that belong together because they share some property, although otherwise we wouldn’t see what can connect them. We tend to think they can indicate the work of the devil, or the work of God, or the fact that there are truths out there in nature which we haven’t noticed before.

They set us to work thinking. Whenever we come across rhyme, we don’t just take it for granted. We want to know why things rhyme. And the answer I give is because that’s how we find out about the world we live in.

How does rhyme help us learn about the world we live in?

The world we live in is full of rhymes. Rhyme is in nature’s DNA. We live in a world that contains such a variety of objects that fall into particular categories, which contrast to other categories. When things out there in nature rhyme, it’s because they belong to different kinds of objects.

Now, why does the world contain so many kinds of objects? It’s a funny thing, isn’t it? We live in a very extraordinary place on Earth, because life evolved here. And because life evolved here, organisms, plants, animals and so on, developed into species, all of which gave rise to subspecies and individuals. And then along came humans, and humans started making a world which rhymes at a whole different level because we create artifacts, tables, chairs, castles, motor cars, bicycles.

Imagine that you’re a little human baby entering this world. It’s an awful lot of work to discover what’s out there. How do you begin? The first stage of an infant’s cognitive development is in fact learning the names of things. Learning what belongs together and what doesn’t.

Here’s the beginning of a structure in this world. It’s a simple heuristic principle, if I can use that term, a rule of thumb. It just works awfully well. Now, my point is that it’s not just that it works well, but because it works well, we’ve evolved to take pleasure in seeing rhymes of that kind.

You write that rhyme in language can force creativity because it leads to unexpected pairings of words and therefore ideas. And that this can explain why so many of us think in sentences rather than ideas or pictures. Can you tell me more about this hypothesis?

It’s a sort of a sideline in the book, but I draw attention to the fact that it’s rather peculiar that we think in words all the time. Linguists have assumed that the way the mind and language work with each other is that we turn thoughts into words. And then words that we speak or write down, the reader or the listener reads the words and turns them back into thoughts. That’s the way we communicate through language. But why, when we’re thinking to ourselves, when we’re talking to ourselves, do we not go directly from one thought to another? Why do we think in actual words? We don’t actually all do it. There’s quite a lot of individual differences, but most of us do employ language to think things through.

What I suggest is that it’s because it produces accidental outcomes, which we’d never have expected. Once you put things into words, they begin to have acoustic rhymes, and they have these rhymes even when we hear them in our heads. And so language is intrinsically poetical.

And what poetry does is continually to tease us with possible relationships which we may or may not follow through. Poets are very well aware of their skill in exploiting that. But every time we use language, we’re in the realm of poetry and, therefore, thinking in language and words is actually hugely creative. It opens up possibilities, alerts us to things which we otherwise just wouldn’t have noticed.

I also, probably controversially, draw attention to the fact that different human languages have different propensities in that direction. Some languages have much more rhyme than others.

The most rhyming languages of all are languages like Japanese. It’s been said it’s almost impossible to say anything in Japanese without having rhymes present. Romance languages like French or Italian, for example, and Spanish do the same. English is peculiar. English has rather fewer rhymes than those other languages because we have more syllables in English than any other language does. That means that when rhymes do happen in English, they’re more surprising. That’s why English has proved such an astonishingly creative language for writing poetry. I don’t want to be a chauvinist about English though.

But if rhyme is the underlying principle in all things that are beautiful, where does surprise come in? Wouldn’t a language like Japanese that simply has more potential for rhyme then by default be more beautiful?

I think it is in a sense. It’s pretty to hear it spoken. Even when we don’t understand it, we can like hearing Japanese or Italian spoken, less so German or English. But for the speakers themselves, when the rhymes occur, they actually are much more interesting. Hopkins says that all beauty may be called rhyme. It actually doesn’t mean that every rhyme is in itself beautiful, but things which are beautiful almost always involve rhymes. And it’s the beautiful rhymes that alert us and introduce us to new ways of seeing things.

I liked your definition of rhyme: “likeness tempered with difference.” It struck me intuitively as a true statement about what is beautiful in some way. But on the other hand, it also casts a really wide net. That phrase, “likeness tempered with difference,” could be used to describe almost anything. How do we know it’s not just a linguistic move, a rebranding, but is actually something more solid?

We can do experimental work where we see what kinds of things interest humans or, for that matter, animals. If we present them with rhyming examples, do they take an interest in them, and if we present them with things that don’t rhyme, can they be bothered? I give some examples of some of my own later work with monkeys. I could get monkeys to begin to recognize rhymes that they hadn’t noticed before.

People can become so obsessed with particular corners of the world, where they look for rhyming examples, that it can take over their lives. They spend all their time collecting new postage stamps or butterflies or spotting airplanes or whatever it may be and then they neglect the things which really matter.

That aspect of human behavior, collecting, is very surprising and interesting. Humans can collect almost anything. Sigmund Freud was an absolute avid collector of little statuettes, and he lined them all up on his desk and compared them and loved just looking at them, gazing at them.

What he’s doing there is very much in a way what we do when we listen to music or rap or whatever it may be. It’s an example of a kind of super stimulus. We’re presented with the possibility of finding connections now and appreciating them, but it can take over and become something that isn’t adaptive in the evolutionary sense. But those are side issues in a way. What I want to try and do in this book is to just establish the general principle and ask how it connects to the way our minds are designed.

But all of this is kind of at a cognitive level, meaning how we understand and connect and make decisions and so on. Beauty is more than just a cognitive event in our minds. Beauty moves us in ways which seem to imply there’s something more to it.

Interestingly, in the essay in which Hopkins has this conversation between this professor and the student, the student objects at some point and he says, “Yeah, professor, I get that. I see you’re obviously right about all this. But isn’t there something more to it? It seems awfully mathematical, your explanation.” He was right. Beauty means more than that.

The second part of the book is about where a different level of emotion creeps in here. For that, I go back to an old idea, which is that the beauty of manmade art has to do with feeling a connection to the creator, to the artist. Again and again, this has been stressed by art critics: It’s only when we can channel the emotion of the painter or the musician or the sculptor, or whoever it may be, that we can feel what they were feeling when they created it, that we really get to understand and to appreciate and to be moved by beauty. It’s a snobbish approach to beauty because it means that only when we have that kind of insight, we really know what we’re talking about. It’s too sophisticated.

Can you tell me what you mean when you say it’s too sophisticated?

The idea that we have to understand and have some direct knowledge of who made the work of art in order to find it beautiful. Someone like Clive Bell, a very important art critic, insisted that only when there’s what he called “significant form” in a work of art, in a painting, when we can read what emotion the artist was trying to communicate, do we really find it beautiful. And that forces him to a rather surprising conclusion. He says, rhetorically, “Well, who has ever felt the same kind of emotion for a forest canopy or for a sunset that I feel for a beautiful painting or for a cathedral.” Well, the answer is, “I have,” and I think an awful lot of people have.

But also how would he know, and how would he measure that?

Yes, but also we know as a matter of fact that we can be very moved by beauty in nature. The problem for Bell is that there isn’t an artist there. If feeling a sense of beauty requires channeling the emotion of the artist, what’s going on when we look at a rainbow? Well, there is an answer, which is that actually there is an artist, or at least in our imagination, there is always an artist present wherever we find beauty or rhyming beauty or these kinds of designs in nature. We can’t help but read into it some kind of artistic creator, somebody who made it for us. They’ve done it in a way which is meant to communicate and to get it right.

Can animals appreciate beauty?

They can appreciate rhyme for sure, and they can be attracted to it. But I don’t think animals have an aesthetic emotion of the kind which we’re talking about. I just don’t believe my dog cares for sunsets.

Isn’t that putting a human frame on it? Maybe there’s a different kind of beauty animals can appreciate.

He doesn’t go into raptures looking at a mountain range. My dog doesn’t go for walks in order to be exposed to the kinds of patterns which seem to be central to human appreciation of nature. Lots of things lead my dog to enjoy being in nature, but I don’t think he feels aesthetic emotion. And I think that’s because dogs or monkeys or bumblebees for that matter don’t think about who made it. The bee must know about the patterns and which flowers belong together and which ones are likely to have the pollen, but the bee never asks, “Why is it there? Who made this for me? Aren’t I lucky?” I think that’s a unique human emotion.

If the foundation of beauty is rhyme, why is the sense of a creator required?

That is a different question. We are attracted to particular patterns because it does us good to be in their presence. That’s how we learn about how the world is put together. And it’s a crucial thing in the development of our minds and our knowledge, what we call our world model. We’re attracted to patterns for the same kind of reasons as we’re attracted to food. We need rhyme to nourish our minds in the same way we need food to nourish our bodies. But we don’t find food beautiful in the same way. And we wouldn’t find rhyme beautiful in the same way if that was all there was to it.

I think beauty strikes us because we can’t help but think, why is this here? Who made it? And it brings me straight back to the argument I began the book with, which is the idea of God as the divine artist lying behind the beauties of nature. I think this lies underneath almost everybody’s reaction to the world they live in. They don’t necessarily need to call it God. I’m a complete atheist. But nonetheless, I still think, “Gosh, somebody got that right.”

Are you familiar with the evolutionary biologist Andreas Wagner, who writes about how beautiful ideas and works in art and science, even species, can remain kind of dormant? He calls them “sleeping beauties,” and they only emerge or catch on when their time is right. David Byrne also recently wrote a book about this subject. He offers numerous examples, including Moby Dick, continental drift, all these different ideas or works that only begin to thrive or enter collective memory long after they’re created. What do you make of this idea?

I think that’s right. We have to wait for new discoveries because we need to scaffold them. We need to have other ideas preceding them, other examples, whether it’s in science or in art. And that’s why art continually evolves, because it builds on what went before. When new forms of art are introduced, they’re often rather scary because we can’t easily make sense of them. We can’t see what we’re meant to be looking for. We don’t understand what the artist was trying to say. It’s notorious that new forms of modern art have been met with outrage by critics and audiences.

Even a great critic like Gertrude Stein describes what happened when she first went to galleries exhibiting cubist art. She says, I looked and I looked again and I still couldn’t make it out. Of course, she went on to become a great modernist herself. She had learned a new way of seeing and a new way of categorizing the things that she was looking at. And so the world began to open up and that’s continually happening. We reeducate our minds so that we ask new questions and we find new levels of rhyme. That’s the reason to be optimistic, not only about of finding new forms of beauty in manmade, human forms of art, but also finding more beauty in the physical world because we learn more and more about it.

It may sound odd to say it, but I think there’s much more beauty in our world than there is in the world of classical Greece, for example, because we know so much more about it. We know what questions to ask. We begin to ask about things which Aristotle and Plato just wouldn’t have noticed. We’re so lucky to have those opportunities.

So the rhyming we appreciate is not intrinsic to an object or a phenomenon or a work of art, it’s contingent and localized or specific to a particular culture.

Yeah, I think it’s specific to a culture. We can learn to see. We come to understand music, for example, which we didn’t appreciate first hearing. This can also happen in the appreciation of natural phenomena. The more we know, the more questions we ask, the more we find.

Interestingly enough, this idea that the world is continually opening up in that way to us is there in the writings of a wonderful Scottish philosopher called Thomas Reid. He thought that beauty had been created by God. He didn’t have this understanding of natural selection and even evolution. But he says that among other things, God has designed us so that we continually increase our understanding. And through that, we can find rhymes that he put out there for us to discover, but that we may need to be educated in order to see how they work. The world is becoming every day a more extraordinary place for us to explore.

Do you think the rise of AI will change the way we experience beauty?

I think AI can, in principle, create works of art. It can find new patterns and new designs, which we haven’t even imagined in the past. The danger, of course, is that if it can do that so well, that the role of the human artist may, in a sense, be diminished. And that’s something we do have to take seriously. But we may have to come back to what I think is actually an old and ancient part of human understanding and appreciation of beauty. It’s the creation of beauty that really matters to us. It’s the work of creation. It’s watching an artist in that moment, which matters as much as anything. The more we are involved in creation, the more aesthetic pleasure we will have.

It’s an old idea because I think archeologists have found evidence of it, but they haven’t quite known what they were finding. If you go back to the paleolithic caves in Europe, what surprised archeologists is that they’re full of works of art on the floor: shell beads, collections of things that have been very finely worked, hand axes of the most extraordinary beauty, symmetry and balance, sometimes so large, they couldn’t possibly have been used. They were made as demonstrations. They were made because somebody enjoyed making them and other people enjoyed seeing them being made. And then apparently, they were abandoned. Nobody put them on a table. In the future perhaps, what we value most and what we should be training people to do, is to appreciate the process of creation.