Eel-Inspired Robots? Study reveals how amphibious animals navigate tough terrain
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“Our study introduces a new model to explain the control of locomotion in elongated amphibious animals”
Emily Standen
— Associate Professor at uOttawa's Faculty of Science
view moreCredit: University of Ottawa
An international research team has unveiled significant findings regarding the locomotion of elongated amphibious animals. The researchers developed an innovative model that explains how elongated amphibious animals—such as eels—coordinate movement both in water and on land.
This collaborative effort, supported by the Human Frontier Science Program, involved researchers from the BioRob lab at EPFL in Switzerland, the Ishiguro Lab at Tohoku University in Japan, and the Standen Lab at University of Ottawa.
Emily Standen, Associate Professor at uOttawa's Faculty of Science and one of the lead Principal Investigators, led the biological side of the research. “Our study introduces a new model to explain the control of locomotion in elongated amphibious animals,” she says. “We aim to deepen our understanding of the neuromotor control systems used by animals that can adapt their movements between aquatic and terrestrial environments.”
The research, which has spanned multiple years, involved a comprehensive approach combining simulation modeling at Tohoku University, robotics testing at EPFL, and animal observation at the University of Ottawa. “In my lab, we observed eels to better understand their motor control systems and observe how brain signals, local spinal pattern generators and sensory feedback systems influence undulatory locomotion,” Professor Standen explains. “By using eels as a living model, we were able to guide the simulation and robotics models with biological data.”
The models in this study show that basic components of the motor system, like coordination in the nervous system, as well as pressure feedback and stretch feedback, allow for redundant coordination during swimming. This redundancy and the capacity of stretch feedback to allow the exploitation of heterogeneity in the environment to help move forward, may explain why elongated fish like the eel and lamprey can move in terrestrial environments. “These animals are remarkably resilient,” she notes. “Our models point to sensory feedback as the key to allowing them to maintain their locomotor performance.”
Bio-Inspired Robotics
Beyond animal biology, the findings could help engineers design flexible robots for challenging environments. “This research provides new ways of understanding neuromotor control in animals, which can have far-reaching implications for both scientific research and technological advancements,” says Professor Standen. Imagine robots that crawl, slither, or swim through tight spaces, using nature’s engineering to stay flexible and strong.
The study, “Multisensory feedback makes swimming circuits robust against spinal transection and enables terrestrial crawling in elongate fish,” is now published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS). It’s a leap forward in understanding movement and could inspire innovative robot designs in the future.
Journal
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Method of Research
Experimental study
Subject of Research
Not applicable
Article Title
Multisensory feedback makes swimming circuits robust against spinal transection and enables terrestrial crawling in elongate fish
Robots offer clues to the impressive robustness of eel locomotion
A neural circuit model tested in amphibious robots developed at EPFL shows how multisensory feedback enables eels to swim after a spinal cord injury, while also providing new insights into the evolutionary transition of vertebrates from water to land.
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The EPFL BioRob Lab's amphibious eel-like robot. 2025 BIOROB EPFL CC BY SA
view moreCredit: 2025 BIOROB EPFL CC BY SA
Elongated fish like eels and lampreys are remarkable movers. Eels demonstrate exceptional locomotor ability, not only when swimming but also crawling on uneven ground. They can even swim after the part of the spinal cord responsible for controlling movement is damaged, which would lead to paralysis in most vertebrates. But the neural mechanism behind these incredible abilities has long been a mystery.
Previous studies have suggested that sensations of skin pressure and muscle stretching modulate the activity of neural networks called central pattern generators (CPG), which are distributed along the spinal cord and are believed to control the adaptive movement of these undulating species. But these theories have not been fully explored due to the technical difficulty of studying multiple sensory feedback in living animals.
Now, a team including researchers from EPFL’s School of Engineering, Tohoku University (Japan), and the University of Ottawa (Canada) have published a mathematical model of a neural circuit in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences that integrates both stretch and pressure sensation for motion control in eels and their relatives. Specifically, the researchers assumed for their model that each body segment has a CPG-like neural circuit that generates rhythmic movement patterns that are regulated autonomously by stretch and pressure sensory feedback.
Then, the researchers used their model to run computer simulations and experiments using amphibious eel-like robots developed in EPFL’s BioRobotics Laboratory. In aquatic experiments, the scientists confirmed that their model quickly produced stable swimming patterns, and that the stretch feedback especially was central to this rapid stabilization. Remarkably, the same neural circuit involved in swimming also enabled the robot to crawl on land and navigate around obstacles, with the stretch feedback again being vital for pushing against obstacles to generate forward thrust.
“The finding that a neural circuit for swimming can also enable terrestrial movement suggests that the evolutionary transition of vertebrates from water to land may not have required the development of entirely new neural circuits,” says BioRobotics Lab head Auke Ijspeert. “Instead, existing aquatic circuits could have been repurposed – a principle that contributes to our understanding of the evolutionary origins of motor control.”
Building more resilient robots
The team also used their robots and simulations to investigate possible mechanisms that enable real eels to swim even after the spinal cord is severed – an injury that would leave most vertebrates paralyzed. Their findings suggest that if the neural circuits distributed throughout the body have a certain degree of spontaneous rhythm generation ability, then this could combine with stretch and pressure feedback to produce coordinated swimming movements in the simulated and robotic fish, before and after the spinal cord severance site.
In addition to providing new information on the evolution and mechanics of animal motor control, the researchers say their findings could be used to develop robots that are resilient to physical damage, and that can move robustly in unpredictable environments like disaster sites. In particular, control methods that integrate multisensory feedback could help researchers develop robots that can move just as easily underwater as on uneven terrain.
Ijspeert adds that the insights into motor function following spinal cord injury are not only biologically intriguing but may also offer principles for designing decentralized motor control systems that do not rely on brain-based control: “If we can understand how biology controls complex movement using senses in the body (without a brain), we may be able to use this information to better control autonomous machines.”
Journal
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Article Title
Multisensory feedback makes swimming circuits robust against spinal transection and enables terrestrial crawling in elongate fish
The BioRob Lab's amphibious eel-like robot. 2025 BIOROB EPFL CC BY SA
Credit
2025 BIOROB EPFL CC BY SA
Eel-astic robots? Stretch and pressure are the keys to eels' remarkable locomotive abilities
Tohoku University
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Overview of this study. (A) Schematic of the body and neural circuit model of elongated fish such as eels. (B) CAD image of the developed eel-like robot. (C) Our interdisciplinary approach combining animal, simulation, and robot experiments. (D) Tested various neural circuits.
view moreCredit: Kotaro Yasui et al.
A spinal cord injury in most vertebrates likely inhibits locomotion and induces paralysis. Not eels. They not only possess the ability to move through water and surprisingly across land when intact, but can also continue to swim even if their spinal cord is severed.
The neural mechanisms behind these incredible abilities have long remained a mystery. Revealing more about the control mechanisms behind eel-like locomotion could radically improve the development of robots to better enable them to navigate diverse and challenging environments.
An international group of researchers has done exactly this by integrating two types of sensory feedback into a neural circuitry model for eel-like elongated fish and testing it with computer simulation and experiments with a real robot. Their findings revealed eels rely on signals from their bodies - like the feeling of stretch and pressure on the skin - to adjust to different environments. These signals, together with the nervous system's built-in rhythm, may be enough to keep movement coordinated even after a serious spinal cord injury.
Details of the findings were published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America (PNAS) on August 18, 2025.
"Our findings will help design highly adaptive robots capable of navigating complex and unpredictable environments," explained Kotaro Yasui, an assistant professor at Tohoku University's Frontier Research Institute for Interdisciplinary Science (FRIS), and lead author of the study.
Yasui and colleagues first set out to find the control principle behind eels' movement. They first developed a mathematical model of a neural circuit that integrates two sensory feedbacks: stretch and pressure. The model assumed that each body segment has its own neural circuit, like a Central Pattern Generator, which produces movement rhythms regulated by these sensory signals.
They tested their model with computer simulations and robotic experiments, where the model quickly produced stable swimming thanks to sensory feedback. This same neural circuit also enabled the robot to crawl on land and navigate around obstacles, with the stretch feedback being vital for pushing against obstacles to generate forward thrust.
To explore how eels maintain movement after spinal cord injury, the group conducted spinal cord transection experiments with real eels and corresponding simulation and robot experiments using the neural circuitry model with the stretch and pressure feedback. Simulation and robot experiments revealed that the combination of multisensory feedback and the circuits' own intrinsic rhythm-generating ability allows the body to synchronize its movements across the injury site, even without input from the brain.
The study had the added benefit of furthering our evolutionary understanding of locomotion. "The discovery that a swimming neural circuit also supports movement on land suggests that vertebrates may not have needed an entirely new neural circuit when they transitioned to land; rather, flexible swimming circuits were repurposed, reducing the need for complex top-down control while enabling effective movement across different environments," explained Akio Ishiguro, a professor at Tohoku University's Research Institute of Electrical Communication (RIEC) and co-author of the paper.
The team from Tohoku University also included researchers from Future University Hakodate, the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, and the University of Ottawa.
Journal
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences
Article Title
Multisensory feedback makes swimming circuits robust against spinal transection and enables terrestrial crawling in elongate fish
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