How do people feel about AI replacing human jobs?

More than 10,000 respondents from 20 countries reveal their attitudes toward the use of AI in various occupations

Max Planck Institute for Human Development

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The average levels of fear expressed in 20 Countries (n = 500 respondents per country) about the deployment of AI in each of our six target occupation.

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Credit: Dong, M., Conway, J. R., Bonnefon, J.-F., Shariff, A., & Rahwan, I. (2024). Fears about artificial intelligence across 20 countries and six domains of application. American Psychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001454. Original image licensed under: CC BY-NC-ND 4.0

How would you react to receiving a diagnosis from an AI doctor? Would you trust a courtroom verdict delivered by an AI judge? Would you rely on news stories written entirely by a machine? Would you feel motivated working under an AI manager? These questions are at the heart of a recent study that examines widespread concerns about AI replacing human workers, while also revealing cultural differences in how people view AI's involvement in six key occupations: doctors, judges, managers, caregivers, religious leaders, and journalists. 

Over 10,000 participants from 20 countries—including the United States, India, Saudi Arabia, Japan, and China—evaluated these six occupations using eight psychological traits: warmth, sincerity, tolerance, fairness, competence, determination, intelligence, and imagination. They also assessed AI’s potential to replicate these traits and expressed their levels of fear regarding AI taking over these roles. The findings suggest that when AI is introduced into a new job, people instinctively compare the human traits necessary for that job with AI's ability to imitate them. Notably, the level of fear felt by participants seems to be directly linked to the perceived mismatch between these human traits and AI's capabilities. 

The researchers revealed substantial differences in fear levels between countries. India, Saudi Arabia, and the United States report the highest average fear levels, particularly regarding AI in roles such as judges and doctors. Conversely, countries like Turkey, Japan, and China display the lowest fear levels, suggesting that cultural factors, such as historical experiences with technology, media narratives, and AI policies, significantly shape attitudes. AI-related fears in Germany are moderate, falling between the higher and lower levels observed. This middle ground highlights a cautious optimism toward integrating AI into society. 

The researchers also showed occupation-specific differences in fear. Judges consistently ranked as the most feared AI occupation in nearly all countries, reflecting concerns about fairness, transparency, and moral judgment. Conversely, AI driven journalists were the least feared, likely because people retain autonomy over how they engage with the information provided by journalists, unlike judicial decisions, which offer limited personal discretion. Other roles, such as AI driven doctors and care workers, elicited strong fears in some countries due to concerns about AI’s lack of empathy and emotional understanding.  

This aligns with the findings of an earlier study on AI managers, where researchers identified initial indications that people react particularly negatively to AI managers, as compared to AI co-workers or AI tools that assist work. This negative reaction was particularly strong in management areas requiring human abilities, such as empathetic listening or respectful behavior  (Dong, Bonnefon, & Rahwan, 2024).   

“Adverse effects can follow whenever AI is deployed in a new occupation. An important task is to find a way to minimize adverse effects, maximize positive effects, and reach a state where the balance of effects is ethically acceptable”, says first author Mengchen Dong, research scientist at the Center for Human and Machines at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development. The study identifies a critical link between fear and the mismatch between occupational expectations and AI’s perceived capabilities, offering a framework to guide culturally sensitive AI development. 

By understanding what people value in human-centric roles, developers and policymakers can create and communicate about AI technologies in ways that build trust and acceptance. "A one-size-fits-all approach overlooks critical cultural and psychological factors, potentially adding barriers to the adoption of beneficial AI technologies across different societies and cultures," adds co-author Iyad Rahwan, Director of the Center for Humans and Machines at the Max Planck Institute for Human Development.   

The study also highlights practical strategies for alleviating fears. For instance, concerns about AI doctors lacking sincerity might be addressed through increased transparency in decision-making and positioning AI as a support tool for human practitioners rather than a replacement. Similarly, fears about AI judges could be mitigated by focusing on fairness-enhancing algorithms and public education campaigns that demystify how AI systems operate. 

Dong and her colleagues are continuing this work by exploring how utopian and dystopian visions of AI influence present-day attitudes in different countries. These ongoing efforts aim to deepen the understanding of human-AI interaction and guide the ethical and culturally informed deployment of AI systems worldwide. 

In brief: 

• The study with over 10,000 participants in 20 countries reveals significant cultural differences in public fears about AI replacing humans in six occupations: doctors, judges, managers, caregivers, religious leaders, and journalists. 
• Fear arises when there is a discrepancy between the assumed capabilities of AI and the skills required for the role. 
• Results show that countries like India, Saudi Arabia, and the U.S. have higher levels of fear, especially regarding AI in roles like doctors and judges. Countries like Japan, China, and Turkey report lower fear levels, indicating cultural factors influence attitudes. 
• The research highlights the importance of designing AI systems that align with public expectations, offering strategies to reduce fears. 

Original publications:

Dong, M., Conway, J. R., Bonnefon, J.-F., Shariff, A., & Rahwan, I. (2024). Fears about artificial intelligence across 20 countries and six domains of application. American Psychologist. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0001454       

Dong, M., Bonnefon, J.-F., & Rahwan, I. (2024). Toward human-centered AI management: Methodological challenges and future directions. Technovation, 131, Article 102953. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.technovation.2024.102953

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Journal

American Psychologist

DOI

10.1037/amp0001454 

Method of Research

Data/statistical analysis

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Fears About Artificial Intelligence Across 20 Countries and Six Domains of Application

 

New technique to make food deliveries more efficient

North Carolina State University

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North Carolina State University researchers have developed a new technique to improve the efficiency of food-delivery operations. The technique accounts for the location of food distribution sites and delivery locations to develop optimized delivery routes that make food delivery faster and more fuel efficient.

“We developed this methodology in order to assist food banks to deliver food to those in need,” says Leila Hajibabai, corresponding author of a paper on the work and an associate professor in NC State’s Edward P. Fitts Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering. “However, the technique can be used by any operation that needs to address similar challenges, whether that’s a for-profit food delivery business or an operation that delivers vehicle parts to auto repair shops.”

The technique the researchers developed accounts for four key factors: the supply of food that is available; where that food is located; the location of the people who need the food and limitations on what they can accept; and the number of vehicles available to deliver that food, as well as the capacity of each vehicle.

“We identified these factors after consulting with food-bank operations and food pantries, to ensure that any techniques we developed were accounting for real-world challenges,” Hajibabai says.

The researchers developed a mathematical model that represents the problem of identifying food-distribution sites and determining the most efficient routes to deliver food from the distribution centers to the people who need it. To solve this problem, the research team applied an optimization approach that integrates multiple algorithms, leveraging operations research techniques to enhance efficiency and effectiveness.

“Food-bank delivery is a very dynamic situation,” Hajibabai says. “For example, the amount of food available for delivery changes from day to day – and the number of volunteer drivers available can change from hour to hour. We needed to come up with approaches capable of handling this degree of variability.”

The researchers then collected data from a food bank in North Carolina and used computational modeling to predict how well the new technique would work.

“The results of the model were promising,” Hajibabai says. “We are now in the process of converting this technique into a software package and conducting proof-of-concept testing with food banks under real-world conditions.”

The paper, “Integrated column generation for volunteer-based delivery assignment and route optimization,” is published in the journal Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering. Co-lead authors of the paper are Asya Atik and Kuangying Li, former Ph.D. students at NC State. The paper was co-authored by Ali Hajbabaie, an associate professor of civil, construction, and environmental engineering at NC State.

This work was done with support from the National Science Foundation under grant 2125600.

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Journal

Computer-Aided Civil and Infrastructure Engineering

DOI

10.1111/mice.13439 

Method of Research

Computational simulation/modeling

Subject of Research

Not applicable

Article Title

Integrated column generation for volunteer-based delivery assignment and route optimization

Article Publication Date

19-Feb-2025

 

Narcissists more likely to feel ostracized

Faced with ambiguous social situations, they are more inclined to perceive exclusion, study says

American Psychological Association

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Narcissists feel ostracized more frequently than their less self-absorbed peers, according to research published by the American Psychological Association. This may stem not only from being shunned due to their personalities but from a tendency to misinterpret ambiguous social signals as exclusion.    

“Feeling ostracized is a subjective experience based on the perception of social cues by the individual. Some may be intentionally ostracized, while others may merely believe they are being excluded when that’s not the case,” said lead author Christiane Büttner, PhD, of the University of Basel. “Our findings suggest that individuals with higher levels of narcissism are more sensitive to exclusion cues, leading them to perceive ostracism more frequently.”

The research was published in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology.

While narcissism can take various forms, the researchers chose to focus exclusively on grandiose narcissism, which includes traits such as entitlement, dominance, a strong desire for admiration and a tendency to seek status and recognition.

The research team first analyzed data from the German Socio-Economic Panel, a long-term, nationally representative survey of approximately 22,000 households in Germany. Focusing on 1,592 individuals who answered questions about narcissism and ostracism in 2015, the study found that people with higher narcissism levels reported experiencing significantly more ostracism.

To confirm these findings, the researchers conducted a two-week study with 323 participants. These individuals completed narcissism assessments and reported past feelings of ostracism. For the next 14 days, they logged moments when they felt excluded or neglected using a mobile app.

“Participants with higher narcissism scores reported feeling excluded more frequently in daily life, aligning with our earlier survey results,” Büttner noted.

A series of experiments involving over 2,500 participants further explored the link between narcissism and feeling excluded. In one experiment, participants joined a virtual ball-tossing game where two other players either included or excluded them. Another experiment presented hypothetical social scenarios and asked participants to assess how excluded they felt.

The results showed that narcissistic individuals were more likely to perceive ambiguous social interactions, where ostracism is not explicitly made clear, as exclusionary. Further reinforcing this perception of social exclusion, additional experiments revealed that people often prefer to avoid highly narcissistic individuals.

Interestingly, the researchers also found evidence that the relationship between narcissism and social exclusion works both ways.

“Narcissism may contribute to social exclusion, but ostracism itself can also fuel the development of narcissistic traits,” Büttner explained.

Analyzing 14 years of data from a national survey in New Zealand involving over 72,000 participants, researchers observed that changes in feelings of exclusion were followed by changes in narcissism levels a year later—and vice versa.

These findings highlight the complex interplay between personality traits and social experiences, according to Büttner. Understanding this relationship can help better address workplace conflicts, social isolation and even broader societal issues.

“If people with high narcissistic traits are more likely to feel and be excluded, this could contribute to escalating tensions in workplaces or social groups. At the same time, their heightened sensitivity to exclusion might make them more likely to react aggressively,” she said. “These findings suggest that interventions aimed at improving interpersonal relationships and reducing social friction should consider both the perceptions and behaviors of the individuals involved.”

Article: “Narcissists Experience of Ostracism,” by Christiane Büttner, PhD, Elianne Albath, PhD, and Rainer Greifeneder, PhD, University of Basel; Selma Rudert, PhD, University of Kaiserslautern-Landau; and Chris Sibley, PhD, University of Auckland. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, published online Feb. 20, 2025.

Contact: Christiane Büttner, PhD, may be contacted at c.buettner@unibas.ch. 

The American Psychological Association, in Washington, D.C., is the largest scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States. APA’s membership includes 173,000 researchers, educators, clinicians, consultants and students. Through its divisions in 54 subfields of psychology and affiliations with 60 state, territorial and Canadian provincial associations, APA works to advance the creation, communication and application of psychological knowledge to benefit society and improve lives.

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Journal

Journal of Personality and Social Psychology

DOI

10.1037/pspp0000547 

Method of Research

Experimental study

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

Narcissists’ Experience of Ostracism

Article Publication Date

20-Feb-2025

 

Another way longer paternity leaves help new parents

Moms less likely to discourage dads’ role in child care, study finds

Ohio State University

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A longer paternity leave after the birth of a child can improve the co-parenting relationship between moms and dads in a key way, a new study finds.

 

Researchers found that mothers were less likely to discourage fathers’ involvement in parenting if the dads had taken more time off after their child was born.

 

“When fathers take longer leaves, mothers might take that as a sign that fathers are more interested in being an active parent and be less likely to try to prevent them from participating in child care,” said Reed Donithen, lead author of the study and a doctoral student in developmental psychology at The Ohio State University.

 

In addition, longer leave for fathers is linked to mothers changing their attitudes about fathers and child care, said study co-author Sarah Schoppe-Sullivan, professor of psychology at Ohio State and president of the board of the Council on Contemporary Families.

 

When dads take more time off after the birth of their baby, moms relax unrealistically high standards for fathers’ parenting and are less reliant on others’ evaluations about their fulfillment of the maternal role.

 

“It is difficult to change people’s attitudes, but a longer paternity leave appears to change not only how mothers respond to fathers’ involvement in child care but how they view parental roles,” Schoppe-Sullivan said. “That is exciting.”

 

The study was published this week in the journal Sex Roles.

 

The researchers used data from the New Parents Project, a long-term study led by Schoppe-Sullivan that investigates how dual-earner couples adjust to becoming parents and how families and children develop over time. In all, 182 couples, most of whom were married, white, well-educated and of higher socioeconomic status, participated in the project.

 

The parents were assessed four times: when the mother was in her third trimester of pregnancy and when the baby was 3, 6 and 9 months old.

 

When the baby was 9 months old, mothers and fathers answered questions about what researchers call “maternal gatekeeping,” or how much the mother inhibits or welcomes the father’s involvement in child care.

 

They were asked how often mothers encouraged dads’ engagement in parenting through gateopening behaviors – for example, by asking for his opinion about child care behaviors. Parents were also asked how often moms engaged in discouraging, or gateclosing behaviors, such as criticizing the dad.

 

When fathers took longer leave, both moms and dads agreed that mothers were less likely to use gateclosing behaviors.  But the researchers were surprised that it didn’t lead to more gateopening by the moms.

 

One reason may be that there is still this belief in our society that mothers should take the lead in child care, Donithen said.

 

“Mothers may think they are the default main parent and so they don’t go out of their way to encourage dads to get more involved,” he said.

 

The optimistic view, according to Schoppe-Sullivan, is that moms see dads who take longer paternity leaves also taking a more active role in parenting – and figure they don’t need to further encourage fathers’ involvement.

 

One strength of the study is that the researchers controlled for many other factors that could explain why fathers who take longer leave also may be more involved in child care. Those include a variety of psychological factors of mothers and fathers, as well as socioeconomic status.

 

Overall, the results suggest that longer paternity leave may set in motion multiple changes that reduce the burden that new mothers bear in child care.

 

“A lot of research on the transition to parenthood suggests that nearly all couples fall into this trap of having unequal roles – even highly educated, two-earner couples like those in our study,” Schoppe-Sullivan said.

 

“This study suggests that a longer paternity leave may be a way out of the trap, that it may lead to a situation where fathers do have more of an equal role in parenting.”

 

Other co-authors of the study were Miranda Berrigan and Claire Kamp Dush of the University of Minnesota.

 

The research was funded by the National Science Foundation and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

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Journal

Sex Roles

DOI

10.1007/s11199-025-01565-7 

Method of Research

Observational study

Subject of Research

People

Article Title

When New Fathers Take More Leave, Does Maternal Gatekeeping Decline?

 

Digital-learning platform improves reading growth by 9 percentile points, bridging learning gaps

Implementing a conventional reading curriculum as digital, map-like lessons with voice recording features made it engaging for students of all reading levels

University of Michigan

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Elementary school students improve their reading skills more quickly with an interactive, digital-learning platform than with conventional, pen-and-paper lessons, according to a study from the University of Michigan, Saginaw Valley State University and Ypsilanti Community Schools.

 

The study showed that when Ypsilanti Community Schools' elementary students accessed their reading curriculum through the Roadmap Learning Platform on school laptops at least twice a week, their scores averaged at the 48th percentile in an online test that assessed how their reading improved over the school year. Students using only the paper version of the same curriculum averaged at the 39th percentile, or below 61% of the tested population. The study is published in the Journal of Interactive Learning Research.

 

"It's very exciting to see the quantitative impact line up with the anecdotal stories that we see on a regular basis. It reaffirms the value of what we're trying to do," said Elliot Soloway, professor of computer science and engineering, education and information, and co-director for the U-M Center for Digital Curricula, where the Roadmap Platform was developed. 

 

Soloway and his partners at the Center for Digital Curricula designed the Roadmap Platform to boost student engagement, which nearly half of all teachers say is falling. Soloway's strategy is to provide the interactive, digital content that Generation Alpha students expect. More than half of today's elementary school students started using smartphones before they were 5 years old, according to the Pew Research Center.

 

"Smartphones have been their interactive tool of choice,” said Carlos Lopez, assistant superintendent of Ypsilanti Community Schools and co-author of the study. "The challenge for us was to create a platform that is just as engaging."

 

The hope is that reengaging students will rescue their literacy, which continues to decline. Only 31% of fourth grade students in the U.S. were proficient readers in 2024, according to results from The Nation's Report Card. Compared to 2019, fourth grade literacy declined by four percentage points.

 

The study results suggest that the U-M Center for Digital Curricula's solution is helping. In school districts similar to Ypsilanti Community Schools, where half of the students received free and reduced lunch in 2022, the reading improvements can make a world of difference.

 

"For many students, the nine percentile gain we see can mean the difference between meeting grade-level expectations for reading standards or falling short," said Anne Tapp Jaksa, professor of teacher education at Saginaw Valley State University and the study's first author. "With the Roadmap Platform, we've transformed the static curricula into dynamic, collaborative lessons that enhance student engagement and learning."

 

The Roadmap Platform engages students with lessons that are organized into graphical networks, called Roadmaps, that the students can navigate, rather than simply scanning paper assignments into a collection of digital forms. The map-like format allows interactive activities to easily supplement existing curricula, and it gives students agency over their learning by allowing them to navigate lessons unaided at their own pace, or in groups.

 

Independent work can be a challenge for students who aren't reading at grade level, but  the Roadmap Platform allows teachers to voice record directions and vocabulary words, and students can similarly record their answers. These features make independent work more accessible to struggling students.

 

"We have really vast differences between our highest and lowest scoring students, but because of Roadmaps, they get all the accommodations they need," said Melanie Eccles, a fifth grade teacher at Ypsilanti International Elementary School who has used the Roadmap Platform for three years. "If students who read below grade level are able to hear the text read aloud, they're gaining exposure to higher-level vocabulary and thinking skills, even while I'm busy helping other students."

 

The level of accessibility that the Roadmap Platform provides is what makes it so appealing to the school district.

 

"The innovative work we've seen through this project is exciting to me because it meets kids where they're at and brings them to the world of literature," Lopez said.

 

The Roadmap Platform will be demoed at the Michigan Association for Computer Users in Learning's conference in Detroit March 19-21.

 

The Roadmap Platform was licensed to Roadmap Learning Inc. with the help of U-M's Innovation Partnerships. Soloway and the University of Michigan have financial interests in the company.

 

Study: Using Roadmap-Formatted Curriculum in Elementary School to Improve NWEA Reading Growth

 

Consumption of fruit, coffee, chocolate and wine reduces risk of metabolic syndrome by up to 23%

The world’s largest study of the impact of dietary polyphenol intake on the risk of cardiometabolic problems tracked more than 6,000 Brazilians for eight years.

Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo

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A diet rich in produce such as grapes, strawberries, açaí, oranges, chocolate, wine and coffee can reduce the risk of metabolic syndrome by as much as 23%, according to the findings of a study involving more than 6,000 Brazilians, the largest in the world to associate the effects of consuming polyphenols with protection against cardiometabolic problems.

An article on the study is published in the Journal of Nutrition. 

Metabolic syndrome, a cluster of metabolic abnormalities and hormone alterations, is the main risk factor for cardiovascular disease. Polyphenols are bioactive compounds with well-known anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties.

“This is good news for people who like fruit, chocolate, coffee and wine, all of which are rich in polyphenols. Although the link between consumption of polyphenols and a reduction in the risk of metabolic syndrome had already been identified in previous studies, it had never before been verified in such a large study sample [6,378 people] and over such a long period [eight years]. Our findings in this study leave no room for doubt: promoting diets rich in polyphenols can be a valuable strategy for reducing the risk of cardiometabolic disease and preventing metabolic syndrome,” said Isabela Benseñor, a co-author of the article and a professor at the University of São Paulo’s Medical School (FM-USP) in Brazil.

The data analyzed in the study was retrieved from ELSA-Brazil, a longitudinal adult health survey that has tracked since 2008 some 15,000 public servants employed by six Brazilian universities and research institutions, with funding from the Ministry of Health and the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq), an arm of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation (MCTI). The analysis was conducted at the same university’s School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (FCF-USP) as part of the postdoctoral research of Renata Carnaúba, under the aegis of the Food Research Center (FoRC), one of the Research, Innovation and Dissemination Centers (RIDCs) funded by FAPESP.

Out of 6,378 participants analyzed, 2,031 developed metabolic syndrome, which is clinically diagnosed when at least three of the following conditions are present: abdominal obesity, high blood pressure, high blood sugar (hyperglycemia), high triglycerides, and high lipids (dyslipidemia). 

The prevalence of metabolic syndrome is rising globally at epidemic proportions. In Brazil, it rose from 29.6% in 2013 to 33% in 2022, according to previously published studies. 

“We plan to conduct further research on the role of polyphenols in protection from cardiometabolic disease. What we know so far relates to the anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties of these compounds, as well as a possible positive influence on the gut microbiota,” said Benseñor, who coordinates ELSA-Brazil.

Dietary polyphenol intake

More than 8,000 polyphenols have been identified in nature. The best known and most studied are phenolic acids (found in coffee and wine), flavonoids (fruit in general, beans, and chocolate), lignans (seeds and oranges), and stilbenes (red grapes and red wine).

Detailed interviews based on questionnaires were conducted to find out about the participants’ dietary habits and the frequency with which they ingested 92 polyphenol-rich foods. The effects of different cooking and processing methods were taken into consideration to assure accurate measurement of polyphenol intake.

The main conclusion was that consumption of polyphenols from different foods at the highest estimated level (469 mg per day) reduced the risk of developing metabolic syndrome by 23% compared with the lowest polyphenol consumption (177 mg per day). Consumption of phenolic acids (a specific class of polyphenols abundant in coffee, red wine and tea) reduced the risk by a similar amount.

According to Carnaúba, the quantity of polyphenols associated with a reduction in the risk of metabolic syndrome was derived from total dietary intake. “Food variety is important since one of the justifications for the beneficial effects of polyphenol on health is their capacity to modulate the gut microbiota. This process can stimulate the growth of probiotic or ‘good’ bacteria. However, the more diverse a person’s dietary intake and sources of polyphenols, the better the effect on their gut microbiota and hence on their overall health,” she said.

The analysis also showed that elevated consumption of flavan-3-ols, a flavonoid subgroup, was associated with a 20% lower risk of developing metabolic syndrome. Red wine was the main source of flavan-3-ols for the study sample, accounting for 80% of total intake of this compound. Chocolate was also a significant source, accounting for 10%.

The researchers also studied the impact of polyphenols on other cardiometabolic disorders linked to metabolic syndrome, such as hypertension, insulin resistance, and elevated triglycerides, for example.

“The results showed that the effects of polyphenols on the metabolism and heart disease were far from negligible. Regardless of the various cardiometabolic risk factors, such as sex, age, smoking and physical activity, participants who ingested more polyphenols were up to 30 times less likely to develop high blood pressure or insulin resistance, and 17 times less likely to have elevated triglycerides,” Carnaúba said.

About FAPESP

The São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) is a public institution with the mission of supporting scientific research in all fields of knowledge by awarding scholarships, fellowships and grants to investigators linked with higher education and research institutions in the state of São Paulo, Brazil. FAPESP is aware that the very best research can only be done by working with the best researchers internationally. Therefore, it has established partnerships with funding agencies, higher education, private companies, and research organizations in other countries known for the quality of their research and has been encouraging scientists funded by its grants to further develop their international collaboration.

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Journal

Journal of Nutrition

DOI

10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.11.016 

Article Title

Associations Between Polyphenol Intake, Cardiometabolic Risk Factors and Metabolic Syndrome in the Brazilian Longitudinal Study of Adult Health (ELSA-Brasil)