It’s possible that I shall make an ass of myself. But in that case one can always get out of it with a little dialectic. I have, of course, so worded my proposition as to be right either way (K.Marx, Letter to F.Engels on the Indian Mutiny)
Monday, January 12, 2026
New study reveals evolutionary and domestication history of button mushroom
A large-scale population genomic study has shed new light on the evolutionary and domestication history of the button mushroom (Agaricus bisporus), one of the most widely cultivated edible fungi in the world.
Led by Prof. ZHAO Ruilin from the Institute of Microbiology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, the researchers showed how climate dynamics and a key gene for adaptive evolution and domestication jointly shaped the mushroom's diversity.
By analyzing whole-genome resequencing data from 482 wild and commercial A. bisporus strains collected worldwide, the researchers revealed that geographic isolation caused by the Quaternary glaciation likely drove A. bisporus divergence around two million years ago (Mya), centered in North America and Europe. This led to the formation of three distinct varieties. Interglacial expansions subsequently facilitated extensive gene flow among populations, promoting mixed origins in today's A. bisporus var. bisporus populations.
The researchers also revealed a key genetic mechanism underlying the domestication of A. bisporus. Kinship inference demonstrated that the white cap was the key trait selected during button mushroom domestication.
Through selective sweeps and genome-wide association studies (GWAS), the researchers traced the cap color variation of A. bisporus to the polyphenol oxidase 1 gene (AbPPO1) on chromosome 8, which encodes a key enzyme in melanin biosynthesis. The evolution of a functional mutant haplotype of the AbPPO1 gene is positively associated with population evolution and cap color variation in A. bisporus. White strains have a unique haplotype, AbPPO1Hap-2, which is derived from a light-colored haplotype and forms the genetic basis of button mushroom domestication.
Additionally, protein structure analysis suggested that amino acid variations within AbPPO1Hap-2 caused structural changes in the protein, while transgenic experiments demonstrated that this haplotype carries a loss-of-function mutation in the AbPPO1 gene.
By integrating evolutionary genomics and domestication genetics, this study highlights the impact of historical climate dynamics on the biodiversity of mushroom-forming fungi. It illustrates the genetic complexity of button mushroom domestication and provides a genomic framework for utilizing and improving A. bisporus germplasm resources.
This work was supported by the National Key R&D Program of China, the National Natural Science Foundation of China and Beijing Innovation Consortium of Agriculture Research System.
Genomic signatures of evolution and domestication in the button mushroom Agaricus bisporus
Article Publication Date
8-Jan-2026
Most of the Arabian Gulf’s mangrove forests are now protected areas and have become popular tourist destinations.
These salt-tolerant coastal forests are locally valued for their medicinal properties, ecological importance, and cultural heritage.
Mangrove ecosystems serve as highly effective carbon sinks, taking in carbon dioxide from the air and storing it in their roots and branches.
Mangrove ecosystems in the Arabian Gulf states are vulnerable, and if current trends continue, the region’s mangrove coverage is projected to shrink by an additional 45% over the next 50 years.
Credit
Abdul Wahid Muhammad Ikram.
Mangroves in oil-rich Arabian Gulf face serious threat despite conservation efforts
The Arabian Gulf’s sanctuary wetlands are home to nearly 60 bird species, including flamingos, herons, and egrets, and offer rich opportunities for birdwatching.
Mangrove habitats across the oil-rich Gulf region are facing significant threats despite ongoing efforts to conserve these salt-tolerant coastal forests, locally valued for their medicinal properties, ecological importance, and cultural heritage.
Researchers at the University of Sharjah warn that mangroves in the region’s littoral states remain vulnerable to development and pollution despite the relative success of a few restoration schemes in places like the United Arab Emirates (UAE).
“While specific total loss figures vary by study period, the region faces severe threats, especially from coastal development and pollution, despite successful restoration projects in places like Abu Dhabi,” the authors note in a study published in the journal Regional Studies in Marine Science.
The research reviews existing literature on mangroves in the Middle East in general, with a particular focus on the Arabian Gulf’s littoral states: Saudi Arabia, Iran, Oman, Yemen, Bahrain, Qatar, and the UAE.
Globally, there are about 80 species of this remarkable tree, renowned for its ability to withstand hypersalinity and extreme heat. Yet, mangrove coverage has been shrinking at an alarming rate from roughly 18.1 million square kilometers to 15 million worldwide, driven primarily by land conversion, aquaculture expansion, and rapid urbanization.
In the Arabian Gulf, the situation is equally concerning. A recent assessment by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classifies mangrove ecosystems as vulnerable, noting a 14.3% decline in total mangrove area since 1996. If current trends continue, the region’s mangrove coverage is projected to shrink by an additional 45% over the next 50 years, according to the report.
The harsh environmental conditions in the Arabian Gulf’s coastal states have limited the tree’s diversity to just two species: Avicennia marina (gray mangrove) and Rhizophora mucronata (red mangrove), with the former being more widespread and dominant.
“The gray mangrove (Avicennia marina) is integral to coastal life in the arid Arab region,” the study explains. “It can thrive in extreme conditions such as high salinity, scorching temperatures, and drought. As a result, it supports a rich web of marine and terrestrial species and offers a natural shield against coastal erosion and storm surges. Its intricate root systems stabilize shorelines and help protect the coastal areas from the impacts of rising sea levels.
“In addition, Avicennia marina is deeply linked to the culture of the local people. Local communities have relied on its wood for fuel and construction for generations. Moreover, the gray mangrove is considered a symbol of resilience in regions with scarce resources, demonstrating the enduring strength and adaptability of those who have coexisted with it for centuries.”
Despite restoration, mangroves are in peril
Mangroves in the Arabian Gulf have long been intertwined with the livelihood and cultural heritage of the region’s coastal communities. Beyond their ecological importance, they sustain marine biodiversity, serve as a source of food, and supply timber and tannins. The forests play a critical role in soil formation, nutrient cycling, and maintaining ecosystem balance.
However, mangrove habitats across the Middle East have suffered loss and degradation. Studies and U.N. reports indicate a net loss of 272 square kilometers – approximately 48.8% from 1980 to 2020, driven largely by urbanization, oil industry activities, and aquaculture.
The United Arab Emirates hosts the region’s largest mangrove habitat, covering an area of about 183 square kilometers. Despite ambitious preservation initiatives, the country experienced habitat loss, primarily due to coastal development, dredging, rising sea levels, pollution, and land reclamation for artificial islands. Encouragingly, large-scale restoration projects are reversing some of this decline.
Other Gulf nations have faced similar challenges. Estimates suggest mangrove habitat reductions of over 50% in Saudi Arabia and around 44% in Iran, the two countries with the next largest coverage. “Preserving this species and the vital services it provides requires integrated conservation strategies that combine ecological science, traditional knowledge, and community stewardship,” the authors emphasize.
Balancing tradition, ecology, and tourism
Arabian Gulf countries are increasingly leveraging the ecological and economic benefits of their mangrove forests. While the primary goal remains to enhance biodiversity, safeguard ecosystems, and strengthen coastline defenses, nations such as the UAE are transforming these habitats into sustainable economic ventures.
For example, the mangroves in Ajman have become a popular tourist destination, with an entry fee of approximately $50 per person. Visitors can explore lush waterways through guided kayaking and paddleboarding tours. The sanctuary wetlands, home to nearly 60 bird species, including flamingos, herons, and egrets, offer rich opportunities for birdwatching.
Local communities have long valued Avicennia marina. Before the influx of oil wealth, mangrove forests in the Gulf provided essential food and income, serving as critical breeding grounds for fish, crabs, and shellfish. The timber, prized for its resistance to pests and extreme heat, was widely used for firewood and in constructing boats, houses, and fences.
Shedding light on the history of mangroves, the authors mention that in local lore, the trees are “admired for their resilience and the bounty they represent … They stand as living symbols of endurance in harsh conditions and mirror the deep bond between people, nature, and the divine.
“Moreover, the local communities have long practiced sustainable management of Avicennia marina. Rather than cutting down living trees, they typically collected branches that had naturally fallen, ensuring that the forest could regenerate and thrive for future generations,” they explain. “These practices were also aligned with seasonal cycles; for example, certain areas were left undisturbed during critical periods such as fish breeding seasons to maintain ecological balance.”
Call for policy and community action
The authors, drawing on established scientific research, assert that Avicennia marinacontinues to face escalating threats from urban expansion, industrial growth, climate change, overharvesting, and the influence of fossil fuel activities.
To safeguard this species, which constitutes the majority of the region’s mangroves, the researchers propose a suite of conservation strategies that aim to “bridge ecological science, traditional knowledge, and community stewardship.” They also call for further phytochemical research to explore the tree’s pharmaceutical potential and create economic incentives that align conservation with development goals.
Among the priority actions outlined are the establishment and expansion of community-led nurseries in high-risk areas to promote participatory restoration. Given that mangrove ecosystems serve as highly effective carbon sinks, taking in carbon dioxide from the air, the authors urge national authorities to implement carbon credit schemes, an approach successfully adopted in mangrove-rich countries such as Kenya.
Such initiatives are relatively straightforward to introduce and can transform blue carbon stored in mangroves into an economically viable project that benefits local communities. Incorporating Avicennia marina into national carbon credit programs, the authors argue, can mobilize climate finance and incentivize long-term conservation.
In conclusion, the authors emphasize that mangroves in the Arabian Gulf represent not only a unique and resilient species but also a strategic entry point for advancing sustainability in the region. Mangroves in the Arabian Gulf, they write, are “a powerful entry point for advancing sustainability. [Their] protection requires a coordinated, interdisciplinary approach that is locally rooted, scientifically informed, and policy supported.”
(left to right) Dr Dhrubajyoti Samanta, Senior Research Fellow at NTU’s Earth Observatory of Singapore; Associate Professor Wenjun Zhu, Deputy Head of Division of Banking and Finance, Nanyang Business School; and Dr Yanbin Xu, Research Assistant Professor from NTU Nanyang Business School’s Department of Banking and Finance.
A new interdisciplinary study led by researchers from Nanyang Technological University,Singapore(NTU Singapore), with collaborators from the City University of Hong Kong, has found that the intensifying positive phase of ENSO, also known as El Niño events, could significantly reduce life expectancy across high-income Pacific Rim countries, resulting in economic losses of up to US$35 trillion by the end of the 21st century.
Using over six decades of mortality records from 10 high-income Pacific Rim countries, the research team shows that El Niño is a persistent driver of health and economic loss, not just a short-term weather anomaly. El Niño-driven climate extremes, such as heatwaves and air pollution, disrupt healthcare systems and raise long-term mortality risks, particularly among vulnerable populations.
The research, published in the scientific journal Nature Climate Change and part of NTU’s Climate Transformation Programme, shows that El Niño events not only cause immediate health impacts but also persistently slow long-term improvements in mortality rates, leading to enduring reductions in life expectancy.
The paper’s first author, Dr Yanbin Xu, Research Assistant Professor from NTU Nanyang Business School’s Department of Banking and Finance, said: “Our study finds that in a warming climate, recurring El Niño events quietly chip away at the health gains that Pacific Rim societies usually achieve over time. Even in relatively wealthy and well-resourced countries and regions, each major El Niño event can slow the improvements in life expectancy that people would otherwise have enjoyed.”
Co-author Associate Professor Wenjun Zhu, Deputy Head of Division of Banking and Finance, Nanyang Business School said: “This research makes clear that El Niño is not just a climate phenomenon – it is a long-term societal and economic shock. We found that the societal costs of ENSO are much larger than they first appear by showing how climate variability persistently slows improvements in mortality. The impact accumulates quietly over decades, shaping economic growth, inequality and fiscal sustainability across entire societies.”
Extreme weather patterns reduce life expectancy gains
ENSO swings between two opposing phases: El Niño (warming of the central and eastern Pacific Ocean) and La Niña (cooling), and is well known for its strong influence on climate patterns across the Pacific Rim and Southeast Asia.
The researchers’ analysis of mortality data from 1960 to 2022 found that major El Niño events slow down long-run improvements in mortality and life expectancy. ENSO events disrupt mortality improvement, slowing down advancements in healthcare and living conditions.
The researchers found that during periods of ENSO-neutral years, all-age mortality across the Pacific Rim declined by an average of 2.1 percentage points per year. However, five years after an El Niño event, this improvement weakens dramatically to -0.6 percentage points, indicating a deterioration in human mortality outcomes linked to more deaths from projected El Niño-related climate stresses.
The researchers estimated that the 1982–83 and 1997–98 episodes reduced life expectancy gains at birth by about 0.5 and 0.4 years respectively. This translates to associated economic losses of roughly US$2.6 trillion and US$4.7 trillion.
Co-author Dr Dhrubajyoti Samanta, Senior Research Fellow at NTU’s Earth Observatory of Singapore, said: “ENSO is the dominant mode of climate variability at interannual scale, and our study shows that ENSO’s influence extends far beyond short-term weather disruptions. By integrating climate dynamics, long-range ENSO teleconnections, and state-of-the-art climate model simulations with observed data, we uncover a persistent climate signal that alters mortality trends for decades. As El Niño events intensify in a warming world, their long-lasting effects on population health become increasingly evident, emphasising the critical role of climate variability in shaping societal outcomes. These scientific insights also indicate that understanding and anticipating ENSO-driven risks will be increasingly important for early warning system and long-term planning.”
Co-author Professor Benjamin Horton, Dean and Chair Professor of the School of Energy and Environment at City University of HongKong, said: “Our research shows that El Niño events do not just disrupt weather – they silently shorten lives and drain economies. Past events have cost high-income Pacific Rim countries up to half a year of life expectancy and trillions of dollars. Looking ahead, without decisive action, climate change will erode global health and stability for generations. Adaptation is not optional – it’s urgent.”
Future projected losses of US$35 trillion by 2100 under moderate emissions
While mitigation efforts to curb greenhouse gas emissions remain critical, the researchers say that adaptation measures are essential to reduce long-term losses.
Future projections under moderate emissions scenarios suggest a cumulative decline of 2.8 years in life expectancy by 2100.
This corresponds to roughly US$35 trillion in losses, or around 1 per cent of projected economic output for the region, highlighting the importance of incorporating El Niño-related health risks into long-term planning.
The research findings indicate that the health burden is greatest for younger and older people, while the economic burden is concentrated among middle-aged working adults.
Factors such as heat extremes, air pollution, and higher health expenditures disproportionately affect younger individuals, who are more frequently engaged in outdoor labour and activities, increasing exposure to El Niño–driven stressors.
The older population (aged 60 and above) is the second most affected group, likely due to reduced physiological resilience to environmental stressors.
